Astragalus (Astragalus membranaceus)

What is Astragalus?

Astragalus (aka milkvetch) is a member of the legume family — which makes it a relative of peanuts, peas, and soy.

This medicinal herb is common in both Western and Eastern herbal medicine. It has a long history of use for immune-related conditions for conditions of immune-excess (such as autoimmunity) as well as deficiency (during infection or immunodeficiencies).

Today, the most common use of the herb if for its benefits on immunity and cardiotonic. Astragalus supplements are used as a prophylaxis for infection (especially of the respiratory tract), and as a daily tonic for promoting overall vitality and stamina.

What is Astragalus Used For?

Astragalus has many uses as a respiratory tonic, but the most common application of the herb in modern herbal medicine is for boosting or modulating the immune system.

It’s popular for use with various forms of immunodeficiency, including viral and bacterial infection (prophylaxis), and as an adjunctive cancer treatment.

The immune-boosting effects of this herb isn’t one-directional — astragalus is also useful for immune excess, such as with autoimmunity or allergic reaction.

Many people use astragalus as a general health supplement for preventing cold or flu, or to enhance cardiovascular function, vitality, and overall stamina.

Other uses include, hepatitis, diarrhea, hypertension, diabetes, and Lyme Disease (not late stage).

Herb Details: Astragalus

Herbal Actions:

• Adaptogen
• Antioxidant
• Antiviral
• Cardiotonic
• Diuretic
• Hepatoprotective
• Hypotensive
• Immunomodulator
• Immune Stimulant

Dosage

• (1:1 Liquid Extract)
  20 – 40 mL
• View Dosage Chart

Part Used

• Root

Family Name

• Leguminosae

Distribution

• Eastern Asia

Constituents of Interest

• b-Glucans
• Astragalosides
• Formononetin
• Gamma-aminobutyric acid

Common Names

• Astragalus
• Milk-Vetch Root
• Huang Qi (China)
• Hwanggi (Korea)
• Ogi (Japan)

CYP450

• Unknown

Quality

• Warm and moist

Pregnancy

• No reported side effects during pregnancy — but not proven safe either.

Taste

• Sweet

Duration of Use

• Long-term use is acceptable with periodic breaks.

Botanical Information

Astragalus is a large genus containing over 3000 individual species. All species within this genus are either small, herbaceous plants, or mid to large shrubs.

The astragalus genus is a member of the legume family — making it a close relative of peas, peanuts, and soy bean.

The primary species used as medicine is Astragalus membranaceus, which originated from Eastern Asia in mountainous regions of China and Mongolia, but have since spread all over the world.

Pharmacology & Medical Research

Longevity

An extract of a closely-related species, Astragalus membranaceus (synonym A. propinquus), called TA-65 was shown to activate telomerase [3] — which is one of the primary targets for longevity-enhancement medications.

Phytochemistry

Astragalus is rich in saponins (such as cycloastragenol and astragalosides), polysaccharides (astroglucans A-C), flavonoids, phytosterols, volatile oils, asparagine, choline, betaine, gluconic acid, beta-sitosterols, amino acids (including GABA), trace elements (zinc, copper, magnesium, manganese, calcium, potassium, sodium, cobalt, rubidium, molybdenum, chromium, vanadium, tin, and silver).

Cautions & Safety

Astragalus is widely considered a safe herb, even over long periods of time or in high doses.

Traditional medical systems (such as TCM) suggest you should avoid using the herb at the acute onset stage of respiratory or sinus infection — focusing instead on using the herb before or after infection takes place. TCM also suggests avoiding the use of astragalus with signs of heat or yin deficiency.

This herb is contraindicated during the later stages of lyme disease.

Astragalus should be avoided in combination with immunosuppressive medications and after organ transplant.

Author:

Justin Cooke, BHSc

The Sunlight Experiment

Recent Blog Posts:

Popular Herbal Monographs

References

Cryptolepis (Cryptolepis sanguinolenta)

What is Cryptolepis?

Cryptolepis is a potent antibmicrobial herb originating from Africa and Southeast Asia. It’s become one of the go-to herbal species for treating resistant bacteria and malaria.

The active constituents of the plant are a group of alkaloids, each of which have been proven effective against a wide variety of bacterial, mycobacterial, fungal, and parasitic organisms (specific strains listed below).

The roots also contain a rich yellow pigment that makes the herb useful for dying fabrics and leather a deep yellow color.

What is Cryptolepis Used For?

Cryptolepis is almost exclusively used as an antimicrobial against parasitic, bacterial, amoebic, and fungal infections. This herb is very useful for infections of all kinds. It’s a popular herb for digestive disorders and infection, topically for skin infections, or orally for urinary tract infections.

Outside of medicine cryptolepis is used as a source of yellow dye — lending to one of its common names, yellow dye root.

Brewing a Decoction of Cryptolepis

Traditional Uses of Cryptolepis

+ Africa

Cryptolepis originates from Africa, where it was primarily used to treat malaria, amoebic dysentery, and both urinary and respiratory infection.

The herb’s success with malaria patients is what made the plant so popular today, and there is now large plots of land dedicated to its cultivation to meet the demand for the herb within Africa, as well as elsewhere in the world.

+ Asia & Indonesia

A closely related species — Cryptolepis buchanii — grows throughout Indonesia, Thailand, China, India, and Nepal.

This species was used in Thailand for treating systemic inflammation, arthritis, and muscle pain.

In India, this species was used to treat diarrhea, bacterial infection, ulcers, and for treating rickets in children.

Herb Details: Cryptolepis

Herbal Actions:

• Antiamoebic
• Antibacterial
• Anticancer
• Antifungal
• Anti-inflammatory
• Antiparasitic
• Antipyretic
• Antiviral (Mild)

Weekly Dose

• (1:2 Liquid Extract)
  30 100 mL
• View Dosage Chart

Part Used

Roots

Family Name

Apocynaceae

Distribution

Africa & Southeast Asia

Constituents of Interest

• Cryptolpine
• Norcyptolepine
• Cryptospirolepine
• Isocryptolepine

Common Names

• Cryptolepis
• Yellow Dye Root
• Delboi
• Gangamau
• Ghanian Quinine
• Kadze
• Koli Mekari
• Kpokpo-Yangolei
• Nibima
• Nombon
• Nurubima
• Ouidoukoi
• Paran Pupa

CYP450

• Unknown

Pregnancy

• Avoid cryptolepis if pregnant or breastfeeding

Duration of Use

• High-dose use of cryptolepis (4-6mL per day) should be limited to 60 days. Low-doses (1-2 mL per day) is considered safe for long-term use.

Botanical Information

Cryptolepis is a member of the Apocynaceae (dogbane) family — which contains roughly 348 genera of trees, shrubs, vines, and herb succulents. members of this family can be found throughout the tropics.

Another notable species in this family is Vinca major (periwinkle)

Most of the species in this family grow in dense tropical rainforests, but a select few prefer harsh, dry environments — including cryptolepis, which prefers dry savanah forests. You’re more likely to find the herb growing near a source of water, however.

You can find cryptolepis wild in dry grassy or forested regions from Senegal east to Nigeria. The plant can also be found sporatically in Camaroon and the Congo.

Some related species grow in Australia as well.

Within the cryptolepis genus there are roughly 42 species — with the primary studied species being Cryptolepis sanguinolenta.

Cultivation, Harvesting & Preparation

Both the roots and stems of the plant have been used as medicine, but the roots contain nearly twice as much of the active alkaloids than the stem — so most people tend to just use the roots instead.

Pharmacology & Medical Research

+ Antibacterial

Cryptolepis is well-known for its antibacterial activity — and is considered by many herbalists to be one of the most reliable systemic antimicrobial herbs available.

Cryptolepis has been tested agains many different strains of bacteria, amoeba, fungi, parasites, and virus.

The most active inhibitory effects of the herb are towards bacteria and parasites, with mild anti-fungal and antiviral activity.

These alkaloids work by inhibiting growth, breaking down cell membranes (lysis), causing morphological changes to the cell, and direct bactericidal activities [1, 2, 3].

One study in particular tested the effects of various cryptolepis extracts (water, ethanol, petroleum ether, chloroform, and ethyl acetate extracts) agains antibiotic-resistant bacteria [1]. The herb was effective agains 75% of the strains tested.

The study found cryptolepis extracts to be effective against the following bacteria:

• Staphylococcus saprophyticus

• Staphylococcus aureus

• Salmonella typhi

• Proteus mirabilis

• Excherichia coli

• Proteus mirabilis

• Pseudomonas aeruginosa

• Klebsiella pneumoniae

Cryptolepis has also been shown to inhibit other organisms, including:

• Neisseria gonorrhoeae [4]

• Shigella dysenteriae [2]

• Salmonella typhimurium [2]

• Vibrio cholerae [2]

• Enterococcus faecalis [2]

• Campylobacter jejuni (65 strains) [5]

• Campylobacter coli (41 strains) [5]

• Bacillus cerues [7]

• Streptococcus pyogenes [7]

• Enterobacter cloacae [7]

• Klebsiella pneumonia [7]

• Proteus vulgaris [7]

• Mycobacterium fortuitum [6]

• Mycobacterium phlei [6]

• Mycobacteriumaurum [6]

• Mycobacterium smegmatis [6]

• Mycobacterium bovis [6]

• Mycobacterium abcessus [6]

The herbs effectiveness agains Escherichia coli, Proteus miribalis, and Staphylococcus saprophyticus provide a mechanism of action for the herbs traditional uses for urinary tract infection.

it should be noted that in most of the studies cited above, the ethanolic extract was by far the most effective. Water extracts were the least effective overall unless decocted for several hours.

+ Antifungal

Many of the same alkaloids active agains bacterial strains are also effective agains fungal infection.

Cryptolepine and neocryptolepine have both been shown to have antifungal activity against the following species:

• Candida albicans [7]

• Aspergillus niger [4]

• Microsporum canis [7]

• Epidermophyton floccosum [7]

• Trichopyton rubrum [7]

• Trichopyton mentagrophytes [7]

• Saccharomyces cerevisiae [7]

+ Anti-Parasitic

This herb has a long history of use for malaria and other parasitic infections. As a result, there’s ben a lot of study to elucidate these effects further.

A preclinical trial using an aqueous extract of the root found the herb, as well as isolated fractions of cryptolepine and isocryptoleopine had direct antiplasmoidial activity [8]. I’s important to note that all strains of plasmodium falciparum used in this study were already resistant to chloroquine — suggesting alternate mechanisms for cryptolepine and isocryptolepines antimalarial effects.

These results have been replicated at least four more times using different alkaloid fractions of the plant, different administration methods (injection), and different strains of plasmodium — all showed varying levels of improvement from the application of cryptolepis [8, 9, 10].

One study noted a synergistic effect against plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium berghei with artimisinins — which is a compound found in the Artemesia annua (Qing Hao). These same results were noted from a semi-synthetic analog of artemisinin called artesunate without producing any toxic side effects. [11].

Clinical Trials

In one trial [12], 44 patients with uncomplicated malaria were given cryptolepis root tea (2.5 gram equivalent) three times per day for five days. The effects were considered positive if the parasites were undetectable in the blood by day seven, and remained undetectable at a 28 day followup.

By the end of the study, 50% of patients were considered cleared of malaria after 2 days of treatment. Chills, vomiting, and nausea were cleared in all patients by day three. By the end of the trial, 93.5% of patients had undetectable levels of plasmodium in the blood, and no symptoms. These improvements are consistent with the pharmaceutical application chloroquine.

Phytochemistry

The primary group of medicinal compounds in cryptolepis are the alkaloids. The primary active alkaloids in the herb include:

• Cryptolepine (the primary bioactive compound)

• Norcryptolepine

• Cryptospirolepine

• Isocryptolepine

• Hydroxycryptolepine

• Cryptoheptine

• Biscryptolepine

• Neocryptolepine

• Cryptoquindoline

The primary active ingredient is cryptolepine — which is also the primary ingredient in another well-known systemic antimicrobial plant, Sida (Sida acuta).

Cryptolepine is an indoloquinoline alkaloid with significant antimicrobial activity. This compound has been shown to have direct antimalarial, antibacterial, anticancer, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory activities [2, 13, 14, 15].

A separate alkaloid, cryptohepine, has also been shown to posess significant antibacterial activity against both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria [5, 20]. Other alkaloids including neocryptolepine and biscryptolepine have also shown activity agains gram-positive bacteria, but aren’t as well studied as cryptohepine or cryptolepine. Neocryptine is reported to provide more bacteriostatic activity than bacteriocidal [7].

Cautions & Safety Information:

Cryptolepis has been used for thousands of years without any evidence of toxic side effects. One clinical trial gave patients 80 mL of cryptolepis extract for six days (a very high dose), with no side effects reported [16].

in rats, the LD50 of cryptolepis was over 5000 mg/kg — an incredibly potent dose [17, 18].

Some mild side effects have been noted when using isolated cryptolepis alkaloids that aren’t noted in whole-plant extracts. Side effects from this may include a rise in ALP and uric acid [12].

One animal study found cryptolepis leaf extract resulted in a decreased sperm count in rats [19].

Avoid using cryptolepis in combination with antidiabetic medications and central nervous system depressants (such as phenobarbitone).

Author:

Justin Cooke, BHSc

The Sunlight Experiment

(Updated March 2020)

Recent Blog Posts:

Featured Herb Monographs

References:

[1] — Mills-Robertson, F. C., Tay, S. C., Duker-Eshun, G., Walana, W., & Badu, K. (2012). In vitro antimicrobial activity of ethanolic fractions of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta. Annals of clinical microbiology and antimicrobials, 11(1), 16.

[2] — Paulo, A., Duarte, A., & Gomes, E. T. (1994). In vitro antibacterial screening of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta alkaloids. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 44(2), 127-130.

[3] — Sawer, I. K., Berry, M. I., & Ford, J. L. (2005). The killing effect of cryptolepine on Staphylococcus aureus. Letters in applied microbiology, 40(1), 24-29.

[4] — Boakye-Yiadom, K. (1979). Antimicrobial properties of some West African medicinal plants II. Antimicrobial activity of aqueous extracts of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (Lindl.) Schlechter. Quarterly Journal of Crude Drug Research, 17(2), 78-80.

[5] — Paulo, A., Pimentel, M., Viegas, S., Pires, I., Duarte, A., Cabrita, J., & Gomes, E. T. (1994). Cryptolepis sanguinolenta activity against diarrhoeal bacteria. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 44(2), 73-77.

[6] — Gibbons, S., Fallah, F., & Wright, C. W. (2003). Cryptolepine hydrochloride: a potent antimycobacterial alkaloid derived from Cryptolepis sanguinolenta. Phytotherapy Research, 17(4), 434-436.

[7] — Cimanga, K., De Bruyne, T., Pieters, L., Totte, J., Tona, L., Kambu, K., ... & Vlietinck, A. J. (1998). Antibacterial and antifungal activities of neocryptolepine, biscryptolepine and cryptoquindoline, alkaloids isolated from Cryptolepis sanguinolenta. Phytomedicine, 5(3), 209-214.

[8] — Grellier, P., Ramiaramanana, L., Millerioux, V., Deharo, E., Schrével, J., Frappier, F., ... & Pousset, J. L. (1996). Antimalarial activity of cryptolepine and isocryptolepine, alkaloids isolated from Cryptolepis sanguinolenta. Phytotherapy Research, 10(4), 317-321.

[9] — Cimanga, K., De Bruyne, T., Pieters, L., Vlietinck, A. J., & Turger, C. A. (1997). In vitro and in vivo antiplasmodial activity of cryptolepine and related alkaloids from Cryptolepis sanguinolenta. Journal of natural products, 60(7), 688-691.

[10] — Whittell, L. R., Batty, K. T., Wong, R. P., Bolitho, E. M., Fox, S. A., Davis, T. M., & Murray, P. E. (2011). Synthesis and antimalarial evaluation of novel isocryptolepine derivatives. Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry, 19(24), 7519-7525.

[11] — Forkuo, A. D., Ansah, C., Boadu, K. M., Boampong, J. N., Ameyaw, E. O., Gyan, B. A., ... & Ofori, M. F. (2016). Synergistic anti-malarial action of cryptolepine and artemisinins. Malaria journal, 15(1), 89.

[12] — Bugyei, K. A., Boye, G. L., & Addy, M. E. (2010). Clinical efficacy of a tea-bag formulation of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta root in the treatment of acute uncomplicated falciparum malaria. Ghana medical journal, 44(1).

[13] — Ntie-Kang, F., Lifongo, L. L., Simoben, C. V., Babiaka, S. B., Sippl, W., & Mbaze, L. M. A. (2014). The uniqueness and therapeutic value of natural products from West African medicinal plants. Part I: uniqueness and chemotaxonomy. RSC Advances, 4(54), 28728-28755.

[14] — Bierer, D. E., Fort, D. M., Mendez, C. D., Luo, J., Imbach, P. A., Dubenko, L. G., ... & Zhang, P. (1998). Ethnobotanical-directed discovery of the antihyperglycemic properties of cryptolepine: its isolation from Cryptolepis sanguinolenta, synthesis, and in vitro and in vivo activities. Journal of medicinal chemistry, 41(6), 894-901.

[15] — Paulo, A., Gomes, E. T., & Houghton, P. J. (1995). New alkaloids from Cryptolepis sanguinolenta. Journal of Natural Products, 58(10), 1485-1491.

[16] — Luo, J., Fort, D. M., Carlson, T. J., Noamesi, B. K., nii‐Amon‐Kotei, D., King, S. R., ... & Waldeck, N. (1998). Cryptolepis sanguinolenta: an ethnobotanical approach to drug discovery and the isolation of a potentially useful new antihyperglycaemic agent. Diabetic medicine, 15(5), 367-374.

[17] — Ansha, C., & Mensah, K. B. (2013). A review of the anticancer potential of the antimalarial herbal Cryptolepis sanguinolenta and its major alkaloid cryptolepine. Ghana medical journal, 47(3), 137-147.

[18] — Ansah, C., Mfoafo, E. A., Woode, E., Opoku-Okrah, C., Owiredu, W. K. B. A., & Duwiejua, M. (2008). Toxicological evaluation of the anti-malarial herb Cryptolepis sanguinolenta in rodents. J Pharmacol Toxicol, 3, 335-43.

[19] — Ajayi, A. F., & Akhigbe, R. E. (2012). Antifertility activity of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta leaf ethanolic extract in male rats. Journal of human Reproductive sciences, 5(1), 43.

[20] — Paulo, A., Gomes, E. T., Steele, J., Warhurst, D. C., & Houghton, P. J. (2000). Antiplasmodial activity of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta alkaloids from leaves and roots. Planta medica, 66(01), 30-34.

Chaga (Inonotus obliquus)

What is Chaga?

Chaga is a slow-growing tree fungus found in cold climates around the world.

This fungus is thought to be one of the best immunomodulators in the natural world. It has a long history of use as medicine, has been the subject of dozens of clinical trials, and is the source product for over 40 pharmaceutical oncology medications.

The fungus itself doesn’t have an appetizing appearance, resembling burnt, diseased growth protruding from birch or alder trees. Once harvested chaga looks more like a rock than a herb.

Despite its appearance, chaga makes a delicous tea resembling the color and flavor of coffee — without the caffeine.

What is Chaga Used For?

Chaga is primarily used as an immune tonic. It’s consumed in capsules, as a strong tea, or in tincture form for supporting and stimulating several different parts of the immune system.

Medicinally, the msot common use for the herb is as an adjunctive cancer treatment, and for compromised immune systems.

Herbalists often use chaga for heart disease, high cholesterol, hypertension, hyperglycemia, and atherosclerosis. This fungus contains an array of antioxidant, immune-boosting, anti-inflammatory, and adaptogenic compounds that give it a long list of potential uses.

Traditional Uses of Chaga

Chaga was commonly used for conditions such as cancer, ulcers, infection, and heart disease. In Russia and Siberia, chaga was used for general health-promoting effects. People drank chaga tea to prevent illness and infection and promote overall vitality and health.

+ Northern Europe

A lot of the traditional knowledge we have of the fungus today comes from the Khanty people of Siberia (formerly called the Ostyaks). This group had a strong affinity for the fungus which grew abundantly in the birch forests they lived in. They used it as an anthelmintic to kill parasites, to treat tubuculosis (TB), for digestive disorders (gastritis, ulcers, etc), for liver disease, and to prevent or treat heart dissease.

The Khanty people used chaga as a tea as it’s commonly used today — but they also smoked it, or topically by burning it and using the ash to make an antiseptic soap.

In some parts of Russia where chaga consumption was common, the USSR Ministry of Health noticed dramatic reductions in cancer rates among these popularions and attributed it to the consumption of chaga. It was then added to the official Soviet Pharmacopoea in 1955.

+ Asia

Chaga can also be found in the cold regions of Korea, Japan, and China. Here, chaga was used for its benefits on metabolic function, heart function, and for its antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities.

Herb Details: Chaga

Herbal Actions:

• Adaptogen
• Anti-Ulcer
• Anticancer
• Antinflammatory
• Antioxidant
• Antiviral
• Immunomodulator

Part Used

Fruiting Body

Family Name

Hymenochaetaceae

Distribution

Northern parts of the world in cluding Canada, Siberia, and Scandanavia. It grows exclusively where birch trees are found.

Constituents of Interest

• 3β-hydroxy-lanosta-8,24-dien-21-al
• Inotodiol
• Lanosterol
• Polysaccharides/beta-glucans

Common Names

• Chaga
• Birch Mushroom
• Cinder Conk
• Champignon de l’Immortalité
• Black Mass
• Birch Canker Polypore

Pregnancy

• There are no reports of toxicity or complications using chaga while pregnant

Duration of Use

• Long-term use of chaga is acceptable

Mycological Information

Chaga grows on various hardwood tree species — including birch (Betula spp.), oaks (Quercus spp.), poplar (Populus spp.), alder (Alnus spp.), ashes (Fagus spp.), and maple (Acer spp.). The most common species of tree you’re likely to find chaga on is birch.

There’s some debate as to whether chaga is parasitic or symbiotic. While it has clear parasitic tendencies, it also offers some benefits to the host tree that detract from the parasitic hypothesis — for example, when the tree becomes wounded, chaga will often form around the injury, protecting it from infection and further damage.

With that said, most of the current literature lists chaga as a parasitic fungi.

The lifecycle of this intriguing fungus is poorly understood. The hard, dark growths we know of as chaga is completely sterile. Only after the tree dies does the chaga mushroom begin to release spores. The fruiting bodies of the chaga form in the bark of the tree. They attract insects which devour the fruiting bodies very quickly. It’s believed the insects then carry the spores to a new host tree. very few chaga fruiting bodies have ever been found in nature.

When chaga spores find a new host they germinate and begin to grow under the bark. The growth is very slow, taking place over 5 to 7 years. Eventually, a black-colored blister begins to appear on the outside of the tree which is the part we use as medicine. Inside the hard black outer layer of the fungus is a soft core with a burnt-orange color.

Cultivation, Harvesting & Preparation

Harvesting chaga is difficult, and should only be done by experienced wild crafters to avoid damaging or killing the host tree. Usually, the wild-crafter will climb up to where the chaga is located, and using a saw or chisel, they’ll cut away chunks of the chaga — being careful not to damage the host tree underneath or remove too much of the fungus.

Preparing chaga can be difficult as well unless you buy it pre-ground or chopped. This fungus is extremely tough and hard to break into smaller pieces to make a tea with.

One of the best ways to prepare chaga for tea is to cut it into smaller pieces with a ban-saw. Smaller chunks can be added to a bag and beaten with a hammer into smaller pieces.

Chaga can then be added to a pot and simmered for 10-15 minutes to produce a dark, mildly bitter tea.

Pharmacology & Medical Research

+ Inflammation

Animal studies on chaga has revealed potent anti-microbial effects on experimental models of colitis [5]. Other animal studies have tested the effects of chaga on broader inflammatory models. One such study found that chaga extracts inhibited key inflammatory messengers such as nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) [14].

+ Cancer

One of the most well-studied aspects of chaga is its effects on cancer. None of these studies are clinical trials. The majority of research involves in vitro or animal research.

There are hundreds of medicinal compounds in chaga alone, but three in-particular stand out in the literature for their potential anti-cancer effects — betulin, betulinic acid, and inotodiol.

The tetracyclic triterpene called inotodiol has been of particular interest by the scientific community studying the effects of chaga for cancer therapy. This compound has been shown to have direct anti-proliferative activities on lung adenocarcinoma cells (A549) [8].

Chaga grown on birch trees also contain some of the medicinal compounds from the host tree — such as betulin or betulinic acid. Both of these compounds have shown promising inhibitory activity on cancer cell lines as well (cutaneous, ovarian, and pulmonary) [9,10,11].

+ Antiviral

Innonotus obliquus was found to inhibit several viruses in vitro:

• Hepatitis C [2]

• Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) [3]

• Herpes simplex virus I (HSV-I) [13]

+ Immunomodulation

Chaga endo-polysaccharide extract (BELYU1102) was shown to possess powerful immuno-stimulant activity in cell cultures. The extract was shown to increase proliferation of IgM antibodies in B cells, and lead to an increase in nitrite production, IL-6, IL-1, TNF-alpha, and iNOS in macrophages [4]. The endopolysaccharide fraction used in this study did not lead to a proliferation of T cells, the IL-2 expression of Th1 cells, or the IL-4 expression of Th2 cells. This suggests that chaga doesn’t directly kill cancer cells, but may lead to indirect inhibition of cancer growth through immuno-stimulation.

+ Metabolic Disorders

Chaga has a long history of use for metabolic disorders. Animal studies involving overfed, obese mice given chaga extracts had improved insulin sensitivity and reduced adiposity [6].

One animal study found a 31% reduction in blood sugar levels of diabetic mice given a chaga extract compared to the control group after just 3-weeks [12].

The mechanism of action for this effect is thought to be through an increase peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors γ transcriptional activities — which is a common therapeutic target for metabolic disorders such as diabetes and dyslipidaemia [7].

Pharmacology & Active Ingredients

Chaga contains hundreds of different compounds — many of which are still being explored for their use as medicine. The fungus is rich in compounds including polysaccharides, triterpenes (inotodiol), polyphenols, and various minerals.

Cautions & Safety Information:

Chaga is widely considered a safe herb, with no expected side effects from high doses, or long-term use.

With that said, anybody taking anti-diabetic or blood-thinner medications should avoid using chaga due to potential antagonistic reactions.

People on immuno-suppresive medications should also avoid this fungus. Chaga has direct immunostimulant activity and could weaken or negate the effects of the medication.

Author:

Justin Cooke, BHSc

The Sunlight Experiment

(Updated March 2020)

Recent Blog Posts:

References:

[1] — Lee, S. H., Hwang, H. S., & Yun, J. W. (2009). Antitumor activity of water extract of a mushroom, Inonotus obliquus, against HT‐29 human colon cancer cells. Phytotherapy Research, 23(12), 1784-1789.

[2] — Shibnev, V. A., Mishin, D. V., Garaev, T. M., Finogenova, N. P., Botikov, A. G., & Deryabin, P. G. (2011). Antiviral activity of Inonotus obliquus fungus extract towards infection caused by hepatitis C virus in cell cultures. Bulletin of experimental biology and medicine, 151(5), 612.

[3] — Shibnev, V. A., Garaev, T. M., Finogenova, M. P., Kalnina, L. B., & Nosik, D. N. (2015). Antiviral activity of aqueous extracts of the birch fungus Inonotus obliquus on the human immunodeficiency virus. Voprosy virusologii, 60(2), 35-38.

[4] — Kim, Y. O., Han, S. B., Lee, H. W., Ahn, H. J., Yoon, Y. D., Jung, J. K., ... & Shin, C. S. (2005). Immuno-stimulating effect of the endo-polysaccharide produced by submerged culture of Inonotus obliquus. Life Sciences, 77(19), 2438-2456.

[5] — Choi, S. Y., Hur, S. J., An, C. S., Jeon, Y. H., Jeoung, Y. J., Bak, J. P., & Lim, B. O. (2010). Anti-inflammatory effects of Inonotus obliquus in colitis induced by dextran sodium sulfate. BioMed Research International, 2010.

[6] — Lee, J. H., & Hyun, C. K. (2014). Insulin‐sensitizing and beneficial lipid‐metabolic effects of the water‐soluble melanin complex extracted from Inonotus obliquus. Phytotherapy research, 28(9), 1320-1328.

[7] — Joo, J. I., Kim, D. H., & Yun, J. W. (2010). Extract of Chaga mushroom (Inonotus obliquus) stimulates 3t3‐l1 adipocyte differentiation. Phytotherapy research, 24(11), 1592-1599.

[8] — Zhong, X. H., Wang, L. B., & Sun, D. Z. (2011). Effects of inotodiol extracts from Inonotus obliquus on proliferation cycle and apoptotic gene of human lung adenocarcinoma cell line A549. Chinese journal of integrative medicine, 17(3), 218-223.

[9] — Dehelean, C. A., Şoica, C., Ledeţi, I., Aluaş, M., Zupko, I., Gǎluşcan, A., ... & Munteanu, M. (2012). Study of the betulin enriched birch bark extracts effects on human carcinoma cells and ear inflammation. Chemistry Central Journal, 6(1), 137.

[10] — Fulda, S. (2008). Betulinic acid for cancer treatment and prevention. International journal of molecular sciences, 9(6), 1096-1107.

[11] — Drag, M., Surowiak, P., Drag-Zalesinska, M., Dietel, M., Lage, H., & Oleksyszyn, J. (2009). Comparision of the cytotoxic effects of birch bark extract, betulin and betulinic acid towards human gastric carcinoma and pancreatic carcinoma drug-sensitive and drug-resistant cell lines. Molecules, 14(4), 1639-1651.

[12] — Sun, J. E., Ao, Z. H., Lu, Z. M., Xu, H. Y., Zhang, X. M., Dou, W. F., & Xu, Z. H. (2008). Antihyperglycemic and antilipidperoxidative effects of dry matter of culture broth of Inonotus obliquus in submerged culture on normal and alloxan-diabetes mice. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 118(1), 7-13.

[13] — Pan, H. H., Yu, X. T., Li, T., Wu, H. L., Jiao, C. W., Cai, M. H., ... & Peng, T. (2013). Aqueous extract from a Chaga medicinal mushroom, Inonotus obliquus (higher basidiomyetes), prevents herpes simplex virus entry through inhibition of viral-induced membrane fusion. International journal of medicinal mushrooms, 15(1).

[14] — Park, Y. M., Won, J. H., Kim, Y. H., Choi, J. W., Park, H. J., & Lee, K. T. (2005). In vivo and in vitro anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effects of the methanol extract of Inonotus obliquus. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 101(1-3), 120-128.

Fish Mint (Houttuynia cordata)

What is Houttuynia?

Houttuynia is a Southeast Asian herb that’s spread all over the world as an invasive species. It’s common name “fish mint” refers to the strong fish-like aroma of the essential oil content. This characteristic flavor makes the herb useful as a flavoring in various dishes.

The fishy roots of the herb are also eaten as a vegetable in some Asian dishes.

Houttuynia is one of the most relevant herbs at the moment in the search for potential sources of medicine against the COVID-19 virus.

This herb has potent antiviral activity — shown to be active against SARS, as well as other coronaviruses, influenza, herpes type I and II, HIV, Dengue, and Chikungunya virus.

What is Houttuynia Used For?

Houttuynia is primarily used for bacterial and viral infections of the respiratory tract. It’s considered most effective if taken prophylactically, but may provide use during infection as well to slow the spread of the disease.

Other applications of the herb are for its diuretic effects, anti-allergic effects, anti-inflammatory actions, and for diabetes.

Traditional Uses of Houttuynia

In Southeast Asia, where houttuynia thrives, the leaves are used in a lot of local culinary dishes. The leaves have a characteristic “fishy” flavor and aroma that lend itself to some dishes as a garnish or spice. In parts of China, the roots are eaten in a dish called Zhé'ěrgēn.

Medicinally, fish mint has had a long history of use in Japan, Korea, China, and Vietnam for a wide range of conditions.

The leaves of the fish mint plant were traditionally used for the following:

• Digestive issues

• Insect bites

• Hypertension

• Constipation

• Hyperglycemia

• Influenza or other viral infections

• Pneumonia

• Kidney disorders

• Inflammation of the urinary tract

• Cough

• Insect repellant

Topically, the herb was used for sores, carbuncles, and inflammation.

In traditional Chinese medicine the herb was used to reduce heat.

Herb Details: Houttuynia

Herbal Actions:

• Antiviral
• Diuretic
• Antibacterial
• Anti-Anaphylactic
• Anti-Allergy
• Antinflammatory
• Febrifuge

[1, 2]

Weekly Dose

• (1:30 Decoction)
  15 – 30 Grams
• View Dosage Chart

Part Used

Aerial Parts

Roots Are Eaten as a Vegetable

Family Name

Saururaceae

Distribution

Southeast Asia

Constituents of Interest

• β-myrcene
• 2-undecanone

Common Names

• Fish Mint
• Chameleon Plant
• Houttuynia
• Chinese Lizard Tail
• Bishop's Weed
• Diếp cá (Vietnam)
• Yu Xing Cao (China)

CYP450

• Unknown

Quality

• Cold

Pregnancy

• Avoid houttuynia if pregnant or breastfeeding

Taste

• Pungent

Duration of Use

• Long-term use should be avoided (more than 2 months)

Botanical Information

Houttuynia is a member of the Saururaceae family of plants — which is often referred to as the lizards table family because of the characteristic tail-like appearance of the flower spikes.

There are only two members of the Houttuynia genus — Houttuynia cordata and Houttuynia emeiensis.

Despite the common name “fish mint” houttuynia has no relation to the mint family of plants.

All parts of the plant posess a unique flavor and aroma — which is best described as having a raw fish aroma, with some hints of citrus, lemon, sandalwood, or coriander.

There are reportedly two varieties of fish mint:

• Japanese Fish Mint — has more of a citrus aroma & flavor

• Chinese Fish Mint — has a fishy and coriander aroma & flavor

The leaves of the fish mint plant are heart-shaped, which can range from being dark green to light pink. The underside of the leaves has a purple hue. Some of the ornamental cultivars come in a wide variety of different color combinations.

Cultivation, Harvesting & Preparation

Houttuynia prefers growing in shady, moist environments and can even grow while slightly submerged in water. You can often find this herb growing nearby streams, and in deep forests. This herb is very resourceful and can be very difficult to get rid of.

Once houttuynia finds an area it likes it will take over completely — causing many regions to classify it as a potential threat to the environment.

It’s considered an invasive weed in places such as the United States, Australia, various pacific islands, and South America. It reportedly thrives in USDA Zones 5a to 9b.

In Asia, the herb can be found growing anywhere from sea level to around 2500 meters in altitude.

Fish mint loves water, so make sure to keep this one wet at all times. As long as the leaves remain above the water-level the plant will continue to thrive.

This herb is a perennial, growing up to 1 meter in height and spreading out in a 1 meter radius. It primarily spreads with the help of adventitious roots that creep along the moist soil of the rainforest bottom.

propagating the plant is best done from cuttings. The seeds of the plant are usually sterile.

Pharmacology & Medical Research

+ SARS-CoV 1 & 2

SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) is a life-threatening form of pneumonia caused by the SARS-CoV-1 virus. It began spreadin in late 2002 to 2003 from patient 0 in China. The disease eventually spread to over 8000 people around the world. As the world scrambled to find treatment, houttynia was shortlisted by Chinese researchers.

During this research, houttuynia was found to increase the proportion of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells [5].

CD4+ T-helper cells play a critical role in the adaptive immune system when dealing with bacterial or viral infections. These cells then pass along information to CD8 cytotoxic cells that can use three separate mechanisms to attack and kill the infection once identified.

The same study also showed houttuynia extract increased IL-2 and IL-10 activity — both of which are critical components in the adaptive immune response necessary to fight viral infection.

This study also looked at the direct effects of houttuynia extract on the SARS virus. The study found the extract had an inhibitory effect on SARS-CoV 3C-like protease (3CLpro) and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp).

3C-like protease and SARS-CoV are both critically important for the life-cycle of the virus. These are two areas deemed critically important target in the search for potential prevention or treatment of the virus.

Now, in 2020, another closely related virus is currently causing a pandemic around the globe — SARS-CoV-2 (AKA COVID-19). As a result, houttuynia is being re-investigated as the world seeks to find a potential cure for the new and deadly virus.

+ Other Antiviral Activity

Houttuynia has been the subject of study for dozens of human and animal viruses — many of which the herb has shown primising inhibitory effects:

• Chikungunya virus [9]
• Human Immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) [10]
• Herpes Simplex Virus type 1 (HSV-1) [10]
• Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 (HSV-2)
• Influenza Virus [10]
• Enterovirus-71 [11]
• Dengue Virus Type 2 [12]

+ Antibacterial Activity

Houttuynia has a long history of use for treating respiratory tract infections of both viral and bacterial causes. This has prompted a lot of researcher to look at the effects of the herb on bacterial infections — particularily those developing resistance to antibiotics such as multi-drug resistant staphylococcus aureaus (MRSA).

One study found houttuynia posessed anti-bacterial effects against MRSA through direct bacteriocidal activity (inhibition of biofilm formation) and an induction of IL-8 [6] — which is one of the first responses triggered by the body during bacterial infection.

+ Cytotoxic Effects

There are five bioactive alkaloids isolated from houttuynia that have been shown to have cytotoxic effects agains human cancer cell lines (in vitro) [1]. This was only a preliminary study but offers evidence for further investigation.

The alkaloids used in the study included:

• A-549
• SK-OV-3
• SK-MEL-2
• XF-498
• HCT-15

+ Anti-Allergic Effects

A mice study investigated the anti-allergic effects of houttuynia by exploring the potential effects of the herb to prevent anaphylaxis — a severe allergic reaction [2].

The study found hoouttuynia water extract was able to inhibit induced systemic anaphylaxis in mice, as well as local allergic reactions by reducing the degranulation of mast cells, histamine release, and calcium uptake.

The study concluded by stating that "[houttuynia] may be beneficial in the treatment of mast cell-mediated anaphylactic responses.

Another animal study showed a houttuynia water-extract had an inhibitory effect on inhibited IgE-mediated systemic passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (in mice) [4].

+ Anti-Inflammatory Effects

An animal study exploring the anti-inflammatory effects of houttuynia found the volotile oil extract of the plant had an inhibitory effect on PGE2 — a potent inflammatory cytokine produced via the COX-2 enzyme [3]. This is the main inflammatory mediator inhibited by such medications as acetyl-salycilic-acid (Aspirin).

The same study also found houttuynia volotile oil reduced other key inflammatory messengers including nitric oxide (NO) and TNF‐α.

+ Effects of Houttuynia on Diabetes

An animal study on diabetic rats given houttuynia found the herb had protective effects on the pancreatic beta-cells through an upregulation of GLUT-4 and potential antioxidant activity [7].

The beta-cells are tasked with producing the body's insulin supply. As blood glucose levels rise, the glucose can damage sensitive tissues such as the beta-cells in the pancrease — leading to a further reduction of insulin activity and worsening of hyperglycemia.

GLUT-4 is the insulin-mediated transporter on the surface of our cells. Insulin binds to GLUT-4 to pull glucose molecules inside where they're converted into energy.

Phytochemistry

+ Essential Oil Content

• 2-undecanone (methyl nonyl ketone)
• Myrcene
• Houttuynin (decanoyl acetaldehyde/3-oxo-dodecanal)
• Decanal
• (E)-caryophyllene
• Decanoic ac id
• Camphene
• β-pinene
• Lauraldehyde
• Bornyl acetate
• α-pinene
• Limonene
• 4-terpineol
• Caryophyllene oxide
• Nonanol
• linalool
  

Source: [8]

Cautions & Safety Information:

Houttuynia has been reported to cause severe allergic reactions in some people.

Avoid using this herb if pregnant or breastfeeding. There is not enough evidence to prove the herb is safe during pregnancy.

Author:

Justin Cooke, BHSc

The Sunlight Experiment

(Updated March 2020)

Recent Blog Posts:

References:

1. Kim, S. K., Ryu, S. Y., No, J., Choi, S. U., & Kim, Y. S. (2001). Cytotoxic alkaloids fromHouttuynia cordate. Archives of pharmacal research, 24(6), 518-521.

2. Li, G. Z., Chai, O. H., Lee, M. S., Han, E. H., Kim, H. T., & Song, C. H. (2005). Inhibitory effects of Houttuynia cordata water extracts on anaphylactic reaction and mast cell activation. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 28(10), 1864-1868.

3. Li, W., Fan, T., Zhang, Y., Fan, T., Zhou, P., Niu, X., & He, L. (2013). Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Volatile Oil Exhibited Anti‐inflammatory Effects In Vivo and Inhibited Nitric Oxide and Tumor Necrosis Factor‐α Production in LPS‐stimulated Mouse Peritoneal Macrophages In Vitro. Phytotherapy Research, 27(11), 1629-1639.

4. Han, E. H., Park, J. H., Kim, J. Y., & Jeong, H. G. (2009). Houttuynia cordata water extract suppresses anaphylactic reaction and IgE-mediated allergic response by inhibiting multiple steps of FcεRI signaling in mast cells. Food and chemical toxicology, 47(7), 1659-1666.

5. Lau, K. M., Lee, K. M., Koon, C. M., Cheung, C. S. F., Lau, C. P., Ho, H. M., ... & Tsui, S. K. W. (2008). Immunomodulatory and anti-SARS activities of Houttuynia cordata. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 118(1), 79-85.

6. Sekita, Y., Murakami, K., Yumoto, H., Mizuguchi, H., Amoh, T., Ogino, S., ... & Kashiwada, Y. (2016). Anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory effects of ethanol extract from Houttuynia cordata poultice. Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry, 80(6), 1205-1213.

7. Kumar, M., Prasad, S. K., Krishnamurthy, S., & Hemalatha, S. (2014). Antihyperglycemic activity of Houttuynia cordata Thunb. in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Advances in pharmacological sciences, 2014.

8. Verma, R. S., Joshi, N., Padalia, R. C., Singh, V. R., Goswami, P., Kumar, A., ... & Saikia, D. (2017). Chemical Composition and Allelopathic, Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Antiacetylcholinesterase Activity of Fish‐mint (Houttuynia cordataThunb.) from India. Chemistry & biodiversity, 14(10), e1700189.

Elderberry (Sambucus nigra)

What is Elderberry?

Elder is an invasive tree spread throughout most of the world.

It can be found in cold climates like Canada and Scandinavian countries, as well as tropical areas in Central and South America, Southeast Asia, and Australia.

Elder trees are even frequently found in remote areas like the Pacific Islands.

Elder has many uses, especially for upper respiratory infections for its antitussive and antiviral activity.

As an antiviral, it has a relatively narrow range of efficacy, which is specific to enveloped viruses like influenza, and will only have a potent effect in the early stages of viral infection. Elder is highly effective for early-stage viral infection and one of the best herbs to keep around in in the event of early signs of cold or flu.

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What is Elder Used For?

Elder is primarily used in the acute stage of respiratory infections. it has the unique ability to structurally inhibit the reproductive cycle of the influenza virus. If used in the early stages of infection elder can be used to prevent widespread infection.

elder is also used for its ability to interact with the central nervous system. For this effect, elder is often used for nerve-related pain.

Traditional Uses of Elder

The use of elder dates back a very long time. Evidence of elder seeds, pollen, and dried fruits have been found at a Bronze Age archaeological site in Tuscany (Italy) [12], a Neolithic site in the French Alps [13], and Durankulak site the Black Sea coast and north-eastern Bulgaria [13].

Elder is used in Ayurvedic medicine, but not in depth. Its berries are used primarily as a diuretic, and aperient, while the bark as a hydragogue, cathartic and anti-epileptic.

In traditional Chinese medicine, elder is known as "mao gu xiao" (Sambucus formosana or Sambucus chinensis) is used (rarely) to treat liver disease. It's considered to be a warm bitter, useful for dispelling blood stasis.

In Indonesia, elder (Sambucus javanica) is used for pain relief, beri beri, and jaundice.

In Western herbal medicine, elder is most commonly used to treat sore throats, and as a purgative or emetic. It's also used to treat wounds (the leaves mainly), or as a diuretic (whole plant).

Elder was commonly combined with herbs like yarrow or boneset in the treatmeent of cold and flu.

Herb Details: Elder

Herbal Actions:

• Antiviral
• Emetic (high doses)
• Antitussive
• Nervine (leaves)

Weekly Dose

• (1:2 Liquid Extract)
  15-40 mL
• View Dosage Chart

Part Used

Flowers and berries

In some cases the leaves, bark, and roots can also be used with caution.

Family Name

Caprifoliaceae

Distribution

Invasive the world over. Common in North America, Western Asia, Europe, The Pacific Islands, and Austalia.

Sambucus australasica and Sambucus gaudichaudiana (Australian white elder) are found primarily in Australia and South America.

Constituents of Interest

• Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside
• Ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs)

Common Names

• Elder
• Black Elder
• Elderberry
• European Elder

Botanical Information:

There are about 30 different species of elder, 3 of which are most commonly used as medicine. The common names for these species include blue elder (Sambucus nigra), red elder (Sambucus racemosa), and white elder (Sambucus australasica).

Phytochemistry

+ Constituent Breakdown:

Elder contains several hundred compounds.

This includes phosphorous (high), vitamins A, B6, and C.

Also contained are polyphenols, anthocyanins (blue-berries)(cyanidin 3-glucoside, cyanidin-3-sambubioside, cyanidin-3, 5-diglucoside, and cyanidin-3-sambubioside-5-glucoside), anthoxanthins (white berries), ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs) (TYPE 2 RIPs; nigrin b, basic nigrin b, SNA, SNA1, and SNLRP, nigrin f, nigrin s, ebulin 1, ebulin r1, ebulin r2. TYPE 1 RIPs; ebulitins), flavonol glycosides (quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside and isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside (about 90% of the total flavonoid content)), phenolic acids (5-O-cafeoylquinic acid and 1,5-di-O-caVeoylquinic acid (about 70% of the total phenolic acid content)), triterpenoids (ursolic acid),

Key Compounds Found in Elder:

Chemical class	Chemical Name	Pharmacology
Flavonoid pigments	Anthocyanins (S. nigra/canadensis) and anthoxanthins (S. australasica)	Water soluble flavonoids that are absorbed through the small intestine and reach peak concentration systemically after 30-60 minutes. They Remain mostly un metabolised before being excreted in the urine.
Flavonol glycosides	quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside and isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside (about 90% of the total flavonoid content)	Some have been found to bind to viral membranes, possibly delivering main mechanism of actions through hemagglutinin, M2 ion channel, and neuraminidase inhibition.
Phenolic acids	5-O-caVeoylquinic acid and 1,5-di-O-caVeoylquinic acid (about 70% of the total phenolic acid content).	Caffeoylquinic acids are mainly found in the plasma and urine as hydroxycinnamate metabolites. Research has suggested that most of the absorption is done in the upper GIT. Peak concentration varies greatly, ranging from 30 min to 6 hours (Tmax).
Triterpenes	Ursolic acid	Downregulates MMP-9 and inhibits COX-2. Reach peak concentration in the blood after 1 hour. Half life is 4 hours.
Lignans	Nigrin b, basic nigrin b, SNA, SNA1, and SNLRP, nigrin f, nigrin s, ebulin 1, ebulin r1, ebulin r2 (type 2 RIPs). ebulitins (Type 1 RIP)	RIPs have been shown to bind to viral envelop proteins, and have shown activity on sialic acid in the GIT (not confirmed in the repiratory epithelial tissue). The pharmacokinetics are not well understood.

What's The Deal With Elders Toxicity Claims?

A group of compounds found in elder called lectins are closely related to the common rat poison — ricin.

Leptins are essentially proteins that can bind with sugars. If leptins like ricin get into the cells, they can interact with our ribosomes (the organelle that does most of the manufacturing of proteins and various other compounds).

The common name given to leptins like ricin that stop the ribosomes from working is referred to as "Ribosome-Inactivating Proteins" or RIPs for short.

RIPs are also thought to be protective against viruses and predators, as well as a way for the plant to store nitrogen.

Several RIPs have been isolated from black elder [18-20].

Similar lectin-compounds can be found in other medicinal plants with similar uses (antiviral), and limitations (emetic) — Phytolacca americana (Phytolacca antiviral protein or PAP).

There are three types of RIPs: Type 1, type 2, and type 3. [19, 20].

Both ebulin and ricin are type two RIPs.

How Elder Leptins Are Different Than Ricin

Despite structural similarities, elder isn't as toxic as ricin — and it's not as toxic as we once thought.

The Ld50 of ebulin 1 was 250 mg/kg, compared to ricins 0.023 µg/kg (intraperitoneal) and 0.0075 µg/kg (intravenous) [22] — that's a huge difference. You would essentially need more than 9000 times the dose of ebulin 1 compared to ricin to reach the same toxic dose.

There are some exceptions.

RIPs such as ebulin f and SELfd are toxic and resist breakdown in the stomach — leading to gastrointestinal irritation and upset.

The solution to this problem is to heat it before using it. The heat breaks reverse the ability for these RIPs to be broken down by pepsin in the stomach — thus preventing the toxic side-effects of ebulin f. [21, 25].

Clinical Applications Of Elder:

Elder is a great antiviral herb, especially for Influenza and some of the other enveloped viral species if used at the early stages of infection.

Cautions:

Elder is an emetic, especially in preparations that contain fresh plant material (unheated). If nausea occurs, dial back the dose. Contrary to popular belief elder is NOT poisonous. Emetics are frequently misinterpreted to be dangerously poisonous.

Elder is thought to decrease the effectiveness of morphine.

+ Contraindications

• Small children
• Caution advised with larger doses

Author:

Justin Cooke, BHSc

The Sunlight Experiment

(Updated May 2019)

Recent Blog Posts:

References:

1. Zakay-Rones, Z., Varsano, N., Zlotnik, M., Manor, O., Regev, L., Schlesinger, M., & Mumcuoglu, M. (1995). Inhibition of several strains of influenza virus in vitro and reduction of symptoms by an elderberry extract (Sambucus nigra L.) during an outbreak of influenza B Panama. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 1(4), 361-369. [in vitro]

2. Chen, C., Zuckerman, D. M., Brantley, S., Sharpe, M., Childress, K., Hoiczyk, E., & Pendleton, A. R. (2014). Sambucus nigra extracts inhibit infectious bronchitis virus at an early point during replication. BMC veterinary research, 10(1), 24. [in vitro]

3. Mascolo, N., Capasso, F., Menghini, A., & Fasulo, M. P. (1987). Biological screening of Italian medicinal plants for anti‐inflammatory activity. Phytotherapy research, 1(1), 28-31.[in vitro]

4. Yeşilada, E., Üstün, O., Sezik, E., Takaishi, Y., Ono, Y., & Honda, G. (1997). Inhibitory effects of Turkish folk remedies on inflammatory cytokines: interleukin-1α, interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor α. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 58(1), 59-73. [in vtro]

5. Harokopakis, E., Albzreh, M. H., Haase, E. M., Scannapieco, F. A., & Hajishengallis, G. (2006). Inhibition of proinflammatory activities of major periodontal pathogens by aqueous extracts from elder flower (Sambucus nigra). Journal of periodontology, 77(2), 271-279. [in vitro]

6. Abuja, P. M., Murkovic, M., & Pfannhauser, W. (1998). Antioxidant and prooxidant activities of elderberry (Sambucus nigra) extract in low-density lipoprotein oxidation. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46(10), 4091-4096. Link. [in vitro]

7. Murkovic, M., Adam, U., & Pfannhauser, W. (2000). Analysis of anthocyane glycosides in human serum. Fresenius' journal of analytical chemistry, 366(4), 379-381. [in vitro].

8. Serkedjieva, J., Manolova, N., Zgórniak‐Nowosielska, I., Zawilińska, B., & Grzybek, J. (1990). Antiviral activity of the infusion (SHS‐174) from flowers of Sambucus nigra L., aerial parts of Hypericum perforatum L., and roots of Saponaria officinalis L. against influenza and herpes simplex viruses. Phytotherapy Research, 4(3), 97-100. [in vitro]

9. Konlee, M. (1998). A new triple combination therapy. Positive health news, (17), 12. [case report]

10. Ulbricht, C., Basch, E., Cheung, L., Goldberg, H., Hammerness, P., Isaac, R., ... & Weissner, W. (2014). An evidence-based systematic review of elderberry and elderflower (Sambucus nigra) by the Natural Standard Research Collaboration. Journal of dietary supplements, 11(1), 80-120. Link. [review article]

11. Christensen, L. P., Kaack, K., & Fretté, X. C. (2008). Selection of elderberry (Sambucus nigra L.) genotypes best suited for the preparation of elderflower extracts rich in flavonoids and phenolic acids. European Food Research and Technology, 227(1), 293-305. Link. Other.

12. Mariotti-Lippi, L.; Bellini, C.; Mori, S. Palaeovegetational reconstruction based on pollen and seeds/fruits from a bronze age archaeological site in Tuscany (Italy). Plant. Biosyst. 2010, 144, 902–908. [OTHER]

13. Martin, L.; Jacomet, S.; Thiebault, S. Plant economy during the Neolithic in a mountain context: The case of “Le Chenet des Pierres” in the french Alps (Bozel-Savoie, France). Veg. Hist. Archaeobot. 2008, 17, s113–s122. [OTHER]

14. Marinova, E.; Atanassova, J. Anthropogenic impact on vegetation and environment during the
    Bronze Age in the area of Lake Durankulak, NE Bulgaria: Pollen, microscopic charcoal,
    non-pollen palynomorphs and plant macrofossils. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 2006, 141, 165–178. [OTHER]

15. Mikulic-Petkovsek, M.; Schmitzer, V.; Slatnar, A.; Todorovic, B.; Veberic, R.; Stampar, F.; Ivancic, A. Investigation of anthocyanin profile of four elderberry species and interspecific hybrids. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014, 62, 5573–5580. [Chemical profiling].

16. Ding, M.; Feng, R.; Wang, S.Y.; Bowman, L.; Lu, Y.; Qian, Y.; Castranova, V.; Jiang, B.H.; Shi, X. Cyanidin-3-glucoside, a natural product derived from blackberry, exhibits chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic activity. J. Biol. Chem. 2006, 281, 17359–17368.

17. Parikh, B.A.; Tumer, N.E. (2004). Antiviral activity of ribosome inactivating proteins in medicine. Mini Rev. Med. Chem. 2004, 4, 523–543.

18. Girbes, T.; Ferreras, J.M.; Arias, F.J.; Stirpe, F. Description, distribution, activity and phylogenetic relationship of ribosome-inactivating proteins in plants, fungi and bacteria. Mini Rev. Med. Chem. 2004, 4, 461–476.

19. Stirpe, F. Ribosome-inactivating proteins. Toxicon 2004, 44, 371–383.

20. Lapadula, W.J.; Sánchez Puerta, M.V.; Juri Ayub, M. Revising the taxonomic distribution, origin
    and evolution of ribosome inactivating protein genes. PLoS One 2013, 8, e72825.

21. Jiménez, P., Tejero, J., Cordoba-Diaz, D., Quinto, E. J., Garrosa, M., Gayoso, M. J., & Girbés, T. (2015). Ebulin from dwarf elder (Sambucus ebulus L.): a mini-review. Toxins, 7(3), 648-658. Link. [review article].

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Reishi (Ganoderma lucidum)

What is Reishi?

Reishi is a medicinal forest-grown fungus. It's revered in traditional medical systems across Asia for its powerful immune-enhancing and longevity-promoting benefits.

Medicinal mushrooms are notorious for their complex effects on the immune system — often working in both directions (stimulation and inhibition), depending on what’s needed.

Reishi is no different — it's one of the most important medicinal herbs for longevity and immune health in the world.

This saprophytic (tree-eating) fungus is often used for the prevention and treatment of immune-related illness — including cancer, autoimmunity, infection, inflammation, and allergic reaction.

Reishi is also used for anxiety, depression, insomnia, and as a general adaptogen for overall health and wellbeing.

What is Reishi Used For?

Reishi has the unique ability to act bidirectionally on the immune system — which means it can increase immune activity, and decrease immune activity. It appears it will push the immune system in whatever direction it needs to go. In patients with low immunity or cancer, reishi up-regulates the immune response.

however, in patients with hyperactive immune activity — such as autoimmune disease or allergic reaction — reishi has an opposite effect, toning down the immune response.

This is an effect not well understood to this day, but gives the mushroom an incredibly versatile set of benefits.

Traditionally, reishi is considered a shen tonic — which is used to calm the nerves, ease anxiety, and promote healthy sleep (without being directly sedative).

Most people use reishi as a general health and immune tonic. It’s used by people with known immune-related illness — such as frequent infection, autoimmunity, chronic inflammation, cancer, and more.

Others use the herb as a prophylactic against common infections like colds and flus, or to keep chronic viral infection at bay (such as herpes or shingles).

Traditional Uses of Reishi

+ Traditional Chinese Medicine

In Traditional Chinese Medicine this fungus has been used for (altitude sickness and is often combined with chrysanthemum, rhodiola, and safflower seed.

Taste:

Sweet [5]

Energy:

Neutral [5]

Channels:

Heart, liver, lung [5]

Actions:

Tonifies, the heart, calms and anchors the Shen, stops cough, stops wheezing, dislodges phlegm, tonifies the spleen, tonifies the Qi, tonifies blood [5]

Indications:

Suitable during pregnancy [5].

Dose:

3-15g decocted20 mins [5]

Considered to be warming, astringent, nourishing, detoxifying, and tonifying. Protects qi of the heart, used to repair a knotted, tight chest. Traditionally in this system, it was recommended to take this herb over long periods to reap the benefits of longevity.

The spores are suggested to contain high amounts of jing and considered an elixir of life [1].

Other uses include Hashimoto's disease, in foot baths for gout, altitude sickness prevention, and immune regulation. [1].

+ Ayurveda

A related species — Ganoderma applanatum — has been used extensively in Ayurvedic systems in the pine region of India. Its uses include stopping excessive salivation in the mouth, as a styptic.

+ Other Historical Uses

Reishi has been used medicinally in Asian countries for at least 4000 years and is the most widely depicted mushroom in Japan, Korea, and China, which can be found on temples, tapestries, statues, and paintings.

Reishis rarity and subsequent value made it most accessible to the privileged like emperors and royalty. It has long been associated with longevity and was included in many ancient medical texts for this purpose.

Used to treat liver ailments, lung conditions, kidney disease, nerve pain, hypertension, gastric ulcers, and insomnia. The antler growth pattern is considered very rare and is the most desired for promoting sexual function in both men and women.

Other uses include its use as a means to ward off evil by hanging dried specimens over the door. Similarly, it has been placed on the graves of shamans to protect from evil souls or spirits.

Reishi has been used in nearly every format imaginable including tinctures, teas/decoctions, powdered preparations, brewed into beers and wines, and eaten raw.

Herb Details: Reishi

Herbal Actions:

• Adaptogen
• Immunomodulator
• Analgesic
• Muscle relaxant
• Nervine Relaxant
• Hepatoprotective
• Pulmonary trophorestorative
• Cardiotonic
• Chemoprotective
• Anti-Cancer
• Antiviral
• Antibacterial

Weekly Dose

• (1:2 Liquid Extract)
  30-60 mL
• View Dosage Chart

Part Used

• Fruiting body, Spores, Mycelium

Family Name

• Ganodermataceae

Distribution

• Asia, Europe, and North America

Constituents of Interest

• Beta-glucans
• Ergosterol
• Triterpenoids
• Polysaccharides

Common Names

• Reishi
• Ling Zhi
• Saiwai-Take
• Kishiban

CYP450

• Unknown

Quality

• Neutral

Pregnancy

• No adverse reactions expected.

Taste

• Bitter

Duration of Use

• Suitable for long term use.

Mycological Information

There are about 80 different species of Ganoderma, many of which are used as medicine. The Ganodermataceae contains 8 genera and roughly 300 different species.

Reishi is a saprophyte, meaning it only eats dying or decaying organic matter such as wood. It's mainly found growing on dying trees, stumps, and fallen logs.

Ganoderma spp. is long-lived — releasing approximately 30 billion spores everyday for up to 6 months or a year [1].

Habitat Ecology, & Distribution:

Wild Ganoderma lucidum is rare but is indigenous to forested regions of Asia including Japan, China, and Russia. Other species are found in North America and Europe.

It grows on Elm (Ulmus spp.), alder (Alnus spp.), oak (Quercus spp.), maple (Acer spp.) and some strains on conifers. Other species of Ganoderma such as G. tsugae or G. oregonense grow better and almost exclusively on conifers. G. lucidum, however, prefers hardwoods.

G. lucidum can be found very rarely in the Pacific Northwest, and a similar species (G. curtisii), is seen more commonly in eastern Canada around the great lakes region [1]. This species is actually a yellow form of the red G. lucidum.

Most reishi products on the market are cultivated in a sterile environment on logs or sawdust in large laboratories.

Harvesting Collection, & Preparation:

Both the mycelium, fruiting body, and spores are used medicinally. The red and purple varieties are considered the most valuable. These phenotypes are also thought to be the most potent in their effects [1].

The spores can be either taken raw or can be cracked. This basically involves the germination, then drying of the spores and is suggested to provide stronger medicinal effects after this germination process has taken place.

Another, much more expensive way of ingesting the spores it to run it through a supercritical CO2 extractor. This method creates a product that is roughly equivalent to 20-40 of the raw spore capsules [1].

A mushroom oil can also be extracted from the fruiting body waxes, can be used as is topically, or added to lotions, and salves.

Cosmetically it is useful as a sunscreen due to its radio-protective effects, as well as in anti-aging creams, and to remove warts [1].

As with most hard, polypores, chop the fungus into strips (better when wet or a saw may have to be used), and crumble into small pieces.

Decoct in water, then strain and freeze the leftover mush, doing this will cause the cell walls to burst and allow more constituents to be extracted during the next process. Next, after it has been frozen for 24 hours or so, de-thaw, and mix with 95% alcohol for at least 2 weeks.

In the end, strain, and combine with the decoction made earlier to a standardized amount.

Pharmacology & Medical Research

+ Antibacterial

Ganoderma applanatum is an effective inhibitor of:

• Bacillus cereus
• Cornybacterium diphtheria
• Escherichia coli
• Pseudomonas aeruginosa
• Staphylococcus aureus
• Streptococcus pyogenes

Gram-positive bacteria were more affected than gram-negative [1].

It has been suggested that the polysaccharides in Ganoderma spp. are more antibacterial — while the triterpenoids are more antiviral.

More research is needed to elucidate on this further.

+ Anti-diabetic

Ganoderma has been reported to produce potent lens aldose reductase inhibition, and significant inhibition of serum glucose and sorbitol accumulation in the lens of the eye, red blood cells, and sciatic nerves in diabetic rats (based on earlier studies) [1]. This shows potential as a treatment for diabetic induced retinopathy and other diabetes-related damage in the body.

Has been shown to lower blood sugar levels in hyperglycemic models (fruiting body), and involved the ganoderan B and C [1].

In a study on type 2 diabetics not on insulin, were given reishi extracts, and compared to the placebo control group, were found to have significantly decreased glycosylated hemoglobin (8.4%-7.6%), in as little as 12 weeks. Fasting insulin levels, 2-hour -post-prandial insulin, fasting C-peptide, and post-prandial C-peptide all showed significant improvement in the reishi group [1].

Spores have also shown evidence for anti-diabetic effects [1].

+ Antioxidant

Methanol extracts of G. tsugae were found to be more potent in antioxidant effects that alpha-tocopherol, and exhibited significant inhibition of lipid peroxidation as such.

The antioxidant effects are not considered as reliable as G. lucidum but are very close. It is the phenol content that has been deemed responsible for these effects. [1].

G. tsugae fruiting body extract was shown to increase intracellular glutathione levels, which in turn protect against oxidative damage [1].

+ Antiulcer effects:

Polysaccharides from Ganoderma spp. protects the gastric mucosa by improving PGE2. This backs up some of its uses in the form of tea for treating ulcers.

+ Antiviral

G. lucidum fruiting body extracts have been shown to inhibit HIV, and HPV [1].

Rogers, (2011) reports that Ganaderiol-F, ganodermadiol, ganoderic acid beta, and lucidumol have all been identified as antiviral agents.

G. resinaceum (and most likely G. tsugae, and G. lucidum as well), have been shown to inhibit punta toro, pichinde, and H1N1 [1].

+ Blood Tonic

Reishi been shown to enhance the production of interleukin-1 in vitro, and increase white blood cell and haemoglobin levels in mice [1].

+ Cardiotonic

Reishi has been shown to improve symptoms of coronary heart disease [1].

G. lucidum has been shown to provide anti-cholesterol, anti-diabetic, reduced platelet aggregation, anti atherosclerotic, and antihypotensive effects, which all play a role in the development of cardiovascular disease.

Suggested to produce angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition through its ganoderic acid B, C2, D, and F [1].

+ Chemoprotective

Has been shown to increase natural killer cell activity of splenocytes by up to 52% [1]

+ Hepatoprotective

The triterpenoids contained in the mycelium of G. tsugae have shown hepatoprotective activity [1].

Ganodereic acid B has shown hepatoprotective effects [1].

+ Immunomodulatory

The polysaccharides from the mycelium were found to be both anti-inflammatories, and immune-stimulating, Rogers, (2011), suggests contradiction from these two effects suggest bi-directional (immunomodulatory) effects on immune response, rather than just stimulating. This appears to be dose-dependent and may be through modulation of cytokine production.

Reishi has been shown to both reduce inflammation and increase immune response — which is contradictory in that an increased immune response should correlate with inflammation. It's has been suggested that G. lucidum produces this apparent modulatory effect through the enteric mucosal pathway. Its effects on the immune system do not appear to be through IgE antibody synthesis, rather through a modulating effect on immunoglobulin levels [1].

+ Sedative

The spores are suggested to produce sedative and hypnotic effects in mice [1].

+ Other

There's some evidence to support the effects of reishi towards bronchitis and other lung disorders . The chemicals suggested to be responsible for these effects are gonoderic acids A, B, C1, and C2 [1].

Phytochemistry

+ Compounds by Anatomy

Fruiting Body

Carbohydrates, amino acids (including adenosine), steroids (ergosterols), protease, lysosomes, lipids, triterpenes, alkaloids, vitamins B2 and C, minerals (zinc, manganese, iron, copper, germanium), beta-glucans (up to 40.6%), [1].

Mycelium

Sterols, alkaloids, lactones, erogone, polysaccharides, triterpinoids,

Spores

choline, triterpenes, betaine, palmitic acid, stearic acid, ergosta7,22-dien-3b-ol, tetracosanoic acid, behenic acid, nonadecanoic acid, ergosterol, beta sitosterol, pyrophosphatidic acid, hentriacontane, tetracosane, ganodermasides (A and B) [1].

+ Species Specific Breakdown

Ganoderma tsugae

3 α-acetoxy-5α-lanosta-8,24-dien-21-oic acid, 2β,3α,9α-trihydroxy-5α-ergosta-7,22-dien, 3alpha-acetoxy-16alpha-tsugarioside B and C, ganoderic acid C2, ganoderic acid B, lucidone A, and glycans (various) [1].

Ganoderma applanatum

Ergosterol (and its peroxide), ergosta-7,22-dien-3b-ol, ergasta-7,22-dien-3-one, β-D-glucan, fungisterol, alnusenone, friedelin, triterpenoids (including ganoderenic, furanoganoderic, ganoderic acids), applanoxidic acids (A, B, C, and D), lanostandoid triterpenes E-H, lucidone A, ganoderma aldehyde, 3 linoleic acid steryl esters. To compare with G. lucidum, ganoderenic acid, and ganoderic acid is found in both [1].

Ganoderma lucidum

Still compiling research.

Clinical Applications Of Reishi:

Reishi is used as a supportive agent for cancer, autoimmune conditions, cardiovascular dysfunctions, respiratory dysfunctions, viral and bacterial infection, and hypertension. It's rarely used on its own, but makes for a great addition to herbal formulations.

Cautions:

Caution advised in combination with ACE inhibitor medications due to potential drug interactions.

Synergy

For altitude sickness: Combines well with rhodiola for this purpose.

It has been suggested that vitamin C helps absorb this mushroom, however, more research is needed to confirm this. Pineapple and ginger may also increase the absorption of reishi constituents.

Author:

Justin Cooke

The Sunlight Experiment

(Updated May 2019)

Recent Blog Posts:

References:

1. Rogers, R. D. (2011). The fungal pharmacy: The complete guide to medicinal mushrooms and lichens of North America [Adobe Digital Editions version].

2. Berovic, M., J. Habijanic, I. Zore, B. Wraber, D. Hodzar, B. Boh and F. Pohleven. Submerged cultivation of Ganoderma lucidum biomass and immunostimulatory effects of fungal polysaccharides. J. Biotechnol. 103: 77–86, 2003

3. Jiang, Y., H. Wang, L. Lu and G.Y. Tian. Chemistry of polysaccharide Lzps-1 from Ganoderma lucidum spore and anti-tumor activity of its total polysaccharides. Yao. Xue. Xue. Bao. 40: 347–350, 2005.

4. Cheng, K.C., H.C. Huang, J.H. Chen, J.W. Hsu, H.C. Cheng, C.H. Ou, W.B. Yang, S.T. Chen, C.H. Wong and H.F. Juan. Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides in human monocytic leukemia cells: from gene expression to network construction. BMC Genomics 8: 411, 2007.

5. Hempen, C. H., & Fischer, T. (2009). A Materia Medica for Chinese Medicine: Plants, Minerals, and Animal Products. (Pg. 436-437).

6. Thyagarajan, A., J. Jiang, A. Hopf, J. Adamec and D. Sliva. Inhibition of oxidative stress-induced invasiveness of cancer cells by Ganoderma lucidum is mediated through the suppression of interleukin-8 secretion. Int. J. Mol. Med. 18: 657–664, 2006.

7. Xie, J.T., C.Z. Wang, S. Wicks, J.J. Yin, J. Kong, J. Li, Y. C. Li and C.S. Yuan. Ganoderma lucidum extract inhibits proliferation of SW 480 human colorectal cancer cells. Exp. Oncol. 28: 25–29, 2006.

8. Paterson, R.R. Ganoderma — a therapeutic fungal biofactory. Phytochemistry. 67: 1985–2001, 2006.

9. Lin, Y.L., Y.C. Liang, S.S. Lee and B.L. Chiang. (2005). Polysaccharide purified from Ganoderma lucidum induced activation and maturation of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells by the NFkappaB and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. J. Leukoc. Biol. 78: 533–543.