Elderberry (Sambucus nigra)

What is Elderberry?

Elder is an invasive tree spread throughout most of the world.

It can be found in cold climates like Canada and Scandinavian countries, as well as tropical areas in Central and South America, Southeast Asia, and Australia.

Elder trees are even frequently found in remote areas like the Pacific Islands.

Elder has many uses, especially for upper respiratory infections for its antitussive and antiviral activity.

As an antiviral, it has a relatively narrow range of efficacy, which is specific to enveloped viruses like influenza, and will only have a potent effect in the early stages of viral infection. Elder is highly effective for early-stage viral infection and one of the best herbs to keep around in in the event of early signs of cold or flu.

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What is Elder Used For?

Elder is primarily used in the acute stage of respiratory infections. it has the unique ability to structurally inhibit the reproductive cycle of the influenza virus. If used in the early stages of infection elder can be used to prevent widespread infection.

elder is also used for its ability to interact with the central nervous system. For this effect, elder is often used for nerve-related pain.

Traditional Uses of Elder

The use of elder dates back a very long time. Evidence of elder seeds, pollen, and dried fruits have been found at a Bronze Age archaeological site in Tuscany (Italy) [12], a Neolithic site in the French Alps [13], and Durankulak site the Black Sea coast and north-eastern Bulgaria [13].

Elder is used in Ayurvedic medicine, but not in depth. Its berries are used primarily as a diuretic, and aperient, while the bark as a hydragogue, cathartic and anti-epileptic.

In traditional Chinese medicine, elder is known as "mao gu xiao" (Sambucus formosana or Sambucus chinensis) is used (rarely) to treat liver disease. It's considered to be a warm bitter, useful for dispelling blood stasis.

In Indonesia, elder (Sambucus javanica) is used for pain relief, beri beri, and jaundice.

In Western herbal medicine, elder is most commonly used to treat sore throats, and as a purgative or emetic. It's also used to treat wounds (the leaves mainly), or as a diuretic (whole plant).

Elder was commonly combined with herbs like yarrow or boneset in the treatmeent of cold and flu.

Herb Details: Elder

Herbal Actions:

• Antiviral
• Emetic (high doses)
• Antitussive
• Nervine (leaves)

Weekly Dose

• (1:2 Liquid Extract)
  15-40 mL
• View Dosage Chart

Part Used

Flowers and berries

In some cases the leaves, bark, and roots can also be used with caution.

Family Name

Caprifoliaceae

Distribution

Invasive the world over. Common in North America, Western Asia, Europe, The Pacific Islands, and Austalia.

Sambucus australasica and Sambucus gaudichaudiana (Australian white elder) are found primarily in Australia and South America.

Constituents of Interest

• Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside
• Ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs)

Common Names

• Elder
• Black Elder
• Elderberry
• European Elder

Botanical Information:

There are about 30 different species of elder, 3 of which are most commonly used as medicine. The common names for these species include blue elder (Sambucus nigra), red elder (Sambucus racemosa), and white elder (Sambucus australasica).

Phytochemistry

+ Constituent Breakdown:

Elder contains several hundred compounds.

This includes phosphorous (high), vitamins A, B6, and C.

Also contained are polyphenols, anthocyanins (blue-berries)(cyanidin 3-glucoside, cyanidin-3-sambubioside, cyanidin-3, 5-diglucoside, and cyanidin-3-sambubioside-5-glucoside), anthoxanthins (white berries), ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs) (TYPE 2 RIPs; nigrin b, basic nigrin b, SNA, SNA1, and SNLRP, nigrin f, nigrin s, ebulin 1, ebulin r1, ebulin r2. TYPE 1 RIPs; ebulitins), flavonol glycosides (quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside and isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside (about 90% of the total flavonoid content)), phenolic acids (5-O-cafeoylquinic acid and 1,5-di-O-caVeoylquinic acid (about 70% of the total phenolic acid content)), triterpenoids (ursolic acid),

Key Compounds Found in Elder:

Chemical class	Chemical Name	Pharmacology
Flavonoid pigments	Anthocyanins (S. nigra/canadensis) and anthoxanthins (S. australasica)	Water soluble flavonoids that are absorbed through the small intestine and reach peak concentration systemically after 30-60 minutes. They Remain mostly un metabolised before being excreted in the urine.
Flavonol glycosides	quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside and isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside (about 90% of the total flavonoid content)	Some have been found to bind to viral membranes, possibly delivering main mechanism of actions through hemagglutinin, M2 ion channel, and neuraminidase inhibition.
Phenolic acids	5-O-caVeoylquinic acid and 1,5-di-O-caVeoylquinic acid (about 70% of the total phenolic acid content).	Caffeoylquinic acids are mainly found in the plasma and urine as hydroxycinnamate metabolites. Research has suggested that most of the absorption is done in the upper GIT. Peak concentration varies greatly, ranging from 30 min to 6 hours (Tmax).
Triterpenes	Ursolic acid	Downregulates MMP-9 and inhibits COX-2. Reach peak concentration in the blood after 1 hour. Half life is 4 hours.
Lignans	Nigrin b, basic nigrin b, SNA, SNA1, and SNLRP, nigrin f, nigrin s, ebulin 1, ebulin r1, ebulin r2 (type 2 RIPs). ebulitins (Type 1 RIP)	RIPs have been shown to bind to viral envelop proteins, and have shown activity on sialic acid in the GIT (not confirmed in the repiratory epithelial tissue). The pharmacokinetics are not well understood.

What's The Deal With Elders Toxicity Claims?

A group of compounds found in elder called lectins are closely related to the common rat poison — ricin.

Leptins are essentially proteins that can bind with sugars. If leptins like ricin get into the cells, they can interact with our ribosomes (the organelle that does most of the manufacturing of proteins and various other compounds).

The common name given to leptins like ricin that stop the ribosomes from working is referred to as "Ribosome-Inactivating Proteins" or RIPs for short.

RIPs are also thought to be protective against viruses and predators, as well as a way for the plant to store nitrogen.

Several RIPs have been isolated from black elder [18-20].

Similar lectin-compounds can be found in other medicinal plants with similar uses (antiviral), and limitations (emetic) — Phytolacca americana (Phytolacca antiviral protein or PAP).

There are three types of RIPs: Type 1, type 2, and type 3. [19, 20].

Both ebulin and ricin are type two RIPs.

How Elder Leptins Are Different Than Ricin

Despite structural similarities, elder isn't as toxic as ricin — and it's not as toxic as we once thought.

The Ld50 of ebulin 1 was 250 mg/kg, compared to ricins 0.023 µg/kg (intraperitoneal) and 0.0075 µg/kg (intravenous) [22] — that's a huge difference. You would essentially need more than 9000 times the dose of ebulin 1 compared to ricin to reach the same toxic dose.

There are some exceptions.

RIPs such as ebulin f and SELfd are toxic and resist breakdown in the stomach — leading to gastrointestinal irritation and upset.

The solution to this problem is to heat it before using it. The heat breaks reverse the ability for these RIPs to be broken down by pepsin in the stomach — thus preventing the toxic side-effects of ebulin f. [21, 25].

Clinical Applications Of Elder:

Elder is a great antiviral herb, especially for Influenza and some of the other enveloped viral species if used at the early stages of infection.

Cautions:

Elder is an emetic, especially in preparations that contain fresh plant material (unheated). If nausea occurs, dial back the dose. Contrary to popular belief elder is NOT poisonous. Emetics are frequently misinterpreted to be dangerously poisonous.

Elder is thought to decrease the effectiveness of morphine.

+ Contraindications

• Small children
• Caution advised with larger doses

Author:

Justin Cooke, BHSc

The Sunlight Experiment

(Updated May 2019)

Recent Blog Posts:

References:

1. Zakay-Rones, Z., Varsano, N., Zlotnik, M., Manor, O., Regev, L., Schlesinger, M., & Mumcuoglu, M. (1995). Inhibition of several strains of influenza virus in vitro and reduction of symptoms by an elderberry extract (Sambucus nigra L.) during an outbreak of influenza B Panama. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 1(4), 361-369. [in vitro]

2. Chen, C., Zuckerman, D. M., Brantley, S., Sharpe, M., Childress, K., Hoiczyk, E., & Pendleton, A. R. (2014). Sambucus nigra extracts inhibit infectious bronchitis virus at an early point during replication. BMC veterinary research, 10(1), 24. [in vitro]

3. Mascolo, N., Capasso, F., Menghini, A., & Fasulo, M. P. (1987). Biological screening of Italian medicinal plants for anti‐inflammatory activity. Phytotherapy research, 1(1), 28-31.[in vitro]

4. Yeşilada, E., Üstün, O., Sezik, E., Takaishi, Y., Ono, Y., & Honda, G. (1997). Inhibitory effects of Turkish folk remedies on inflammatory cytokines: interleukin-1α, interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor α. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 58(1), 59-73. [in vtro]

5. Harokopakis, E., Albzreh, M. H., Haase, E. M., Scannapieco, F. A., & Hajishengallis, G. (2006). Inhibition of proinflammatory activities of major periodontal pathogens by aqueous extracts from elder flower (Sambucus nigra). Journal of periodontology, 77(2), 271-279. [in vitro]

6. Abuja, P. M., Murkovic, M., & Pfannhauser, W. (1998). Antioxidant and prooxidant activities of elderberry (Sambucus nigra) extract in low-density lipoprotein oxidation. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46(10), 4091-4096. Link. [in vitro]

7. Murkovic, M., Adam, U., & Pfannhauser, W. (2000). Analysis of anthocyane glycosides in human serum. Fresenius' journal of analytical chemistry, 366(4), 379-381. [in vitro].

8. Serkedjieva, J., Manolova, N., Zgórniak‐Nowosielska, I., Zawilińska, B., & Grzybek, J. (1990). Antiviral activity of the infusion (SHS‐174) from flowers of Sambucus nigra L., aerial parts of Hypericum perforatum L., and roots of Saponaria officinalis L. against influenza and herpes simplex viruses. Phytotherapy Research, 4(3), 97-100. [in vitro]

9. Konlee, M. (1998). A new triple combination therapy. Positive health news, (17), 12. [case report]

10. Ulbricht, C., Basch, E., Cheung, L., Goldberg, H., Hammerness, P., Isaac, R., ... & Weissner, W. (2014). An evidence-based systematic review of elderberry and elderflower (Sambucus nigra) by the Natural Standard Research Collaboration. Journal of dietary supplements, 11(1), 80-120. Link. [review article]

11. Christensen, L. P., Kaack, K., & Fretté, X. C. (2008). Selection of elderberry (Sambucus nigra L.) genotypes best suited for the preparation of elderflower extracts rich in flavonoids and phenolic acids. European Food Research and Technology, 227(1), 293-305. Link. Other.

12. Mariotti-Lippi, L.; Bellini, C.; Mori, S. Palaeovegetational reconstruction based on pollen and seeds/fruits from a bronze age archaeological site in Tuscany (Italy). Plant. Biosyst. 2010, 144, 902–908. [OTHER]

13. Martin, L.; Jacomet, S.; Thiebault, S. Plant economy during the Neolithic in a mountain context: The case of “Le Chenet des Pierres” in the french Alps (Bozel-Savoie, France). Veg. Hist. Archaeobot. 2008, 17, s113–s122. [OTHER]

14. Marinova, E.; Atanassova, J. Anthropogenic impact on vegetation and environment during the
    Bronze Age in the area of Lake Durankulak, NE Bulgaria: Pollen, microscopic charcoal,
    non-pollen palynomorphs and plant macrofossils. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 2006, 141, 165–178. [OTHER]

15. Mikulic-Petkovsek, M.; Schmitzer, V.; Slatnar, A.; Todorovic, B.; Veberic, R.; Stampar, F.; Ivancic, A. Investigation of anthocyanin profile of four elderberry species and interspecific hybrids. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014, 62, 5573–5580. [Chemical profiling].

16. Ding, M.; Feng, R.; Wang, S.Y.; Bowman, L.; Lu, Y.; Qian, Y.; Castranova, V.; Jiang, B.H.; Shi, X. Cyanidin-3-glucoside, a natural product derived from blackberry, exhibits chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic activity. J. Biol. Chem. 2006, 281, 17359–17368.

17. Parikh, B.A.; Tumer, N.E. (2004). Antiviral activity of ribosome inactivating proteins in medicine. Mini Rev. Med. Chem. 2004, 4, 523–543.

18. Girbes, T.; Ferreras, J.M.; Arias, F.J.; Stirpe, F. Description, distribution, activity and phylogenetic relationship of ribosome-inactivating proteins in plants, fungi and bacteria. Mini Rev. Med. Chem. 2004, 4, 461–476.

19. Stirpe, F. Ribosome-inactivating proteins. Toxicon 2004, 44, 371–383.

20. Lapadula, W.J.; Sánchez Puerta, M.V.; Juri Ayub, M. Revising the taxonomic distribution, origin
    and evolution of ribosome inactivating protein genes. PLoS One 2013, 8, e72825.

21. Jiménez, P., Tejero, J., Cordoba-Diaz, D., Quinto, E. J., Garrosa, M., Gayoso, M. J., & Girbés, T. (2015). Ebulin from dwarf elder (Sambucus ebulus L.): a mini-review. Toxins, 7(3), 648-658. Link. [review article].

22. He, X.; McMahon, S.; Henderson, T.D.; Griffey, S.M.; Cheng, L.W. Ricin toxicokinetics and its sensitive detection in mouse sera or feces using immuno-PCR. PLoS One 2010, 5, e12858. [Animal study]

23. Iglesias, R.; Citores, L.; Ferreras, J.M.; Pérez, Y.; Jiménez, P.; Gayoso, M.J.; Olsnes, S.; Tamburino, R.; di Maro, A.; Parente, A.; et al. Sialic acid-binding dwarf elder four-chain lectin displays nucleic acid N-glycosidase activity. Biochimie 2010, 92, 71–80.

24. Vimr, E.; Lichtensteiger, C. To sialylate, or not to sialylate: that is the question. Trends Microbiol. 2002, 10, 254–257.

25. Jimenez, P.; Cabrero, P.; Basterrechea, J.E.; Tejero, J.; Cordoba-Diaz, D.; Girbes, T. Isolation and molecular characterization of two lectins from dwarf elder (Sambucus ebulus L.) blossoms related to the Sam n1 allergen. Toxins 2013, 5, 1767–1779

Reishi (Ganoderma lucidum)

What is Reishi?

Reishi is a medicinal forest-grown fungus. It's revered in traditional medical systems across Asia for its powerful immune-enhancing and longevity-promoting benefits.

Medicinal mushrooms are notorious for their complex effects on the immune system — often working in both directions (stimulation and inhibition), depending on what’s needed.

Reishi is no different — it's one of the most important medicinal herbs for longevity and immune health in the world.

This saprophytic (tree-eating) fungus is often used for the prevention and treatment of immune-related illness — including cancer, autoimmunity, infection, inflammation, and allergic reaction.

Reishi is also used for anxiety, depression, insomnia, and as a general adaptogen for overall health and wellbeing.

What is Reishi Used For?

Reishi has the unique ability to act bidirectionally on the immune system — which means it can increase immune activity, and decrease immune activity. It appears it will push the immune system in whatever direction it needs to go. In patients with low immunity or cancer, reishi up-regulates the immune response.

however, in patients with hyperactive immune activity — such as autoimmune disease or allergic reaction — reishi has an opposite effect, toning down the immune response.

This is an effect not well understood to this day, but gives the mushroom an incredibly versatile set of benefits.

Traditionally, reishi is considered a shen tonic — which is used to calm the nerves, ease anxiety, and promote healthy sleep (without being directly sedative).

Most people use reishi as a general health and immune tonic. It’s used by people with known immune-related illness — such as frequent infection, autoimmunity, chronic inflammation, cancer, and more.

Others use the herb as a prophylactic against common infections like colds and flus, or to keep chronic viral infection at bay (such as herpes or shingles).

Traditional Uses of Reishi

+ Traditional Chinese Medicine

In Traditional Chinese Medicine this fungus has been used for (altitude sickness and is often combined with chrysanthemum, rhodiola, and safflower seed.

Taste:

Sweet [5]

Energy:

Neutral [5]

Channels:

Heart, liver, lung [5]

Actions:

Tonifies, the heart, calms and anchors the Shen, stops cough, stops wheezing, dislodges phlegm, tonifies the spleen, tonifies the Qi, tonifies blood [5]

Indications:

Suitable during pregnancy [5].

Dose:

3-15g decocted20 mins [5]

Considered to be warming, astringent, nourishing, detoxifying, and tonifying. Protects qi of the heart, used to repair a knotted, tight chest. Traditionally in this system, it was recommended to take this herb over long periods to reap the benefits of longevity.

The spores are suggested to contain high amounts of jing and considered an elixir of life [1].

Other uses include Hashimoto's disease, in foot baths for gout, altitude sickness prevention, and immune regulation. [1].

+ Ayurveda

A related species — Ganoderma applanatum — has been used extensively in Ayurvedic systems in the pine region of India. Its uses include stopping excessive salivation in the mouth, as a styptic.

+ Other Historical Uses

Reishi has been used medicinally in Asian countries for at least 4000 years and is the most widely depicted mushroom in Japan, Korea, and China, which can be found on temples, tapestries, statues, and paintings.

Reishis rarity and subsequent value made it most accessible to the privileged like emperors and royalty. It has long been associated with longevity and was included in many ancient medical texts for this purpose.

Used to treat liver ailments, lung conditions, kidney disease, nerve pain, hypertension, gastric ulcers, and insomnia. The antler growth pattern is considered very rare and is the most desired for promoting sexual function in both men and women.

Other uses include its use as a means to ward off evil by hanging dried specimens over the door. Similarly, it has been placed on the graves of shamans to protect from evil souls or spirits.

Reishi has been used in nearly every format imaginable including tinctures, teas/decoctions, powdered preparations, brewed into beers and wines, and eaten raw.

Herb Details: Reishi

Herbal Actions:

• Adaptogen
• Immunomodulator
• Analgesic
• Muscle relaxant
• Nervine Relaxant
• Hepatoprotective
• Pulmonary trophorestorative
• Cardiotonic
• Chemoprotective
• Anti-Cancer
• Antiviral
• Antibacterial

Weekly Dose

• (1:2 Liquid Extract)
  30-60 mL
• View Dosage Chart

Part Used

• Fruiting body, Spores, Mycelium

Family Name

• Ganodermataceae

Distribution

• Asia, Europe, and North America

Constituents of Interest

• Beta-glucans
• Ergosterol
• Triterpenoids
• Polysaccharides

Common Names

• Reishi
• Ling Zhi
• Saiwai-Take
• Kishiban

CYP450

• Unknown

Quality

• Neutral

Pregnancy

• No adverse reactions expected.

Taste

• Bitter

Duration of Use

• Suitable for long term use.

Mycological Information

There are about 80 different species of Ganoderma, many of which are used as medicine. The Ganodermataceae contains 8 genera and roughly 300 different species.

Reishi is a saprophyte, meaning it only eats dying or decaying organic matter such as wood. It's mainly found growing on dying trees, stumps, and fallen logs.

Ganoderma spp. is long-lived — releasing approximately 30 billion spores everyday for up to 6 months or a year [1].

Habitat Ecology, & Distribution:

Wild Ganoderma lucidum is rare but is indigenous to forested regions of Asia including Japan, China, and Russia. Other species are found in North America and Europe.

It grows on Elm (Ulmus spp.), alder (Alnus spp.), oak (Quercus spp.), maple (Acer spp.) and some strains on conifers. Other species of Ganoderma such as G. tsugae or G. oregonense grow better and almost exclusively on conifers. G. lucidum, however, prefers hardwoods.

G. lucidum can be found very rarely in the Pacific Northwest, and a similar species (G. curtisii), is seen more commonly in eastern Canada around the great lakes region [1]. This species is actually a yellow form of the red G. lucidum.

Most reishi products on the market are cultivated in a sterile environment on logs or sawdust in large laboratories.

Harvesting Collection, & Preparation:

Both the mycelium, fruiting body, and spores are used medicinally. The red and purple varieties are considered the most valuable. These phenotypes are also thought to be the most potent in their effects [1].

The spores can be either taken raw or can be cracked. This basically involves the germination, then drying of the spores and is suggested to provide stronger medicinal effects after this germination process has taken place.

Another, much more expensive way of ingesting the spores it to run it through a supercritical CO2 extractor. This method creates a product that is roughly equivalent to 20-40 of the raw spore capsules [1].

A mushroom oil can also be extracted from the fruiting body waxes, can be used as is topically, or added to lotions, and salves.

Cosmetically it is useful as a sunscreen due to its radio-protective effects, as well as in anti-aging creams, and to remove warts [1].

As with most hard, polypores, chop the fungus into strips (better when wet or a saw may have to be used), and crumble into small pieces.

Decoct in water, then strain and freeze the leftover mush, doing this will cause the cell walls to burst and allow more constituents to be extracted during the next process. Next, after it has been frozen for 24 hours or so, de-thaw, and mix with 95% alcohol for at least 2 weeks.

In the end, strain, and combine with the decoction made earlier to a standardized amount.

Pharmacology & Medical Research

+ Antibacterial

Ganoderma applanatum is an effective inhibitor of:

• Bacillus cereus
• Cornybacterium diphtheria
• Escherichia coli
• Pseudomonas aeruginosa
• Staphylococcus aureus
• Streptococcus pyogenes

Gram-positive bacteria were more affected than gram-negative [1].

It has been suggested that the polysaccharides in Ganoderma spp. are more antibacterial — while the triterpenoids are more antiviral.

More research is needed to elucidate on this further.

+ Anti-diabetic

Ganoderma has been reported to produce potent lens aldose reductase inhibition, and significant inhibition of serum glucose and sorbitol accumulation in the lens of the eye, red blood cells, and sciatic nerves in diabetic rats (based on earlier studies) [1]. This shows potential as a treatment for diabetic induced retinopathy and other diabetes-related damage in the body.

Has been shown to lower blood sugar levels in hyperglycemic models (fruiting body), and involved the ganoderan B and C [1].

In a study on type 2 diabetics not on insulin, were given reishi extracts, and compared to the placebo control group, were found to have significantly decreased glycosylated hemoglobin (8.4%-7.6%), in as little as 12 weeks. Fasting insulin levels, 2-hour -post-prandial insulin, fasting C-peptide, and post-prandial C-peptide all showed significant improvement in the reishi group [1].

Spores have also shown evidence for anti-diabetic effects [1].

+ Antioxidant

Methanol extracts of G. tsugae were found to be more potent in antioxidant effects that alpha-tocopherol, and exhibited significant inhibition of lipid peroxidation as such.

The antioxidant effects are not considered as reliable as G. lucidum but are very close. It is the phenol content that has been deemed responsible for these effects. [1].

G. tsugae fruiting body extract was shown to increase intracellular glutathione levels, which in turn protect against oxidative damage [1].

+ Antiulcer effects:

Polysaccharides from Ganoderma spp. protects the gastric mucosa by improving PGE2. This backs up some of its uses in the form of tea for treating ulcers.

+ Antiviral

G. lucidum fruiting body extracts have been shown to inhibit HIV, and HPV [1].

Rogers, (2011) reports that Ganaderiol-F, ganodermadiol, ganoderic acid beta, and lucidumol have all been identified as antiviral agents.

G. resinaceum (and most likely G. tsugae, and G. lucidum as well), have been shown to inhibit punta toro, pichinde, and H1N1 [1].

+ Blood Tonic

Reishi been shown to enhance the production of interleukin-1 in vitro, and increase white blood cell and haemoglobin levels in mice [1].

+ Cardiotonic

Reishi has been shown to improve symptoms of coronary heart disease [1].

G. lucidum has been shown to provide anti-cholesterol, anti-diabetic, reduced platelet aggregation, anti atherosclerotic, and antihypotensive effects, which all play a role in the development of cardiovascular disease.

Suggested to produce angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition through its ganoderic acid B, C2, D, and F [1].

+ Chemoprotective

Has been shown to increase natural killer cell activity of splenocytes by up to 52% [1]

+ Hepatoprotective

The triterpenoids contained in the mycelium of G. tsugae have shown hepatoprotective activity [1].

Ganodereic acid B has shown hepatoprotective effects [1].

+ Immunomodulatory

The polysaccharides from the mycelium were found to be both anti-inflammatories, and immune-stimulating, Rogers, (2011), suggests contradiction from these two effects suggest bi-directional (immunomodulatory) effects on immune response, rather than just stimulating. This appears to be dose-dependent and may be through modulation of cytokine production.

Reishi has been shown to both reduce inflammation and increase immune response — which is contradictory in that an increased immune response should correlate with inflammation. It's has been suggested that G. lucidum produces this apparent modulatory effect through the enteric mucosal pathway. Its effects on the immune system do not appear to be through IgE antibody synthesis, rather through a modulating effect on immunoglobulin levels [1].

+ Sedative

The spores are suggested to produce sedative and hypnotic effects in mice [1].

+ Other

There's some evidence to support the effects of reishi towards bronchitis and other lung disorders . The chemicals suggested to be responsible for these effects are gonoderic acids A, B, C1, and C2 [1].

Phytochemistry

+ Compounds by Anatomy

Fruiting Body

Carbohydrates, amino acids (including adenosine), steroids (ergosterols), protease, lysosomes, lipids, triterpenes, alkaloids, vitamins B2 and C, minerals (zinc, manganese, iron, copper, germanium), beta-glucans (up to 40.6%), [1].

Mycelium

Sterols, alkaloids, lactones, erogone, polysaccharides, triterpinoids,

Spores

choline, triterpenes, betaine, palmitic acid, stearic acid, ergosta7,22-dien-3b-ol, tetracosanoic acid, behenic acid, nonadecanoic acid, ergosterol, beta sitosterol, pyrophosphatidic acid, hentriacontane, tetracosane, ganodermasides (A and B) [1].

+ Species Specific Breakdown

Ganoderma tsugae

3 α-acetoxy-5α-lanosta-8,24-dien-21-oic acid, 2β,3α,9α-trihydroxy-5α-ergosta-7,22-dien, 3alpha-acetoxy-16alpha-tsugarioside B and C, ganoderic acid C2, ganoderic acid B, lucidone A, and glycans (various) [1].

Ganoderma applanatum

Ergosterol (and its peroxide), ergosta-7,22-dien-3b-ol, ergasta-7,22-dien-3-one, β-D-glucan, fungisterol, alnusenone, friedelin, triterpenoids (including ganoderenic, furanoganoderic, ganoderic acids), applanoxidic acids (A, B, C, and D), lanostandoid triterpenes E-H, lucidone A, ganoderma aldehyde, 3 linoleic acid steryl esters. To compare with G. lucidum, ganoderenic acid, and ganoderic acid is found in both [1].

Ganoderma lucidum

Still compiling research.

Clinical Applications Of Reishi:

Reishi is used as a supportive agent for cancer, autoimmune conditions, cardiovascular dysfunctions, respiratory dysfunctions, viral and bacterial infection, and hypertension. It's rarely used on its own, but makes for a great addition to herbal formulations.

Cautions:

Caution advised in combination with ACE inhibitor medications due to potential drug interactions.

Synergy

For altitude sickness: Combines well with rhodiola for this purpose.

It has been suggested that vitamin C helps absorb this mushroom, however, more research is needed to confirm this. Pineapple and ginger may also increase the absorption of reishi constituents.

Author:

Justin Cooke

The Sunlight Experiment

(Updated May 2019)

Recent Blog Posts:

References:

1. Rogers, R. D. (2011). The fungal pharmacy: The complete guide to medicinal mushrooms and lichens of North America [Adobe Digital Editions version].

2. Berovic, M., J. Habijanic, I. Zore, B. Wraber, D. Hodzar, B. Boh and F. Pohleven. Submerged cultivation of Ganoderma lucidum biomass and immunostimulatory effects of fungal polysaccharides. J. Biotechnol. 103: 77–86, 2003

3. Jiang, Y., H. Wang, L. Lu and G.Y. Tian. Chemistry of polysaccharide Lzps-1 from Ganoderma lucidum spore and anti-tumor activity of its total polysaccharides. Yao. Xue. Xue. Bao. 40: 347–350, 2005.

4. Cheng, K.C., H.C. Huang, J.H. Chen, J.W. Hsu, H.C. Cheng, C.H. Ou, W.B. Yang, S.T. Chen, C.H. Wong and H.F. Juan. Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides in human monocytic leukemia cells: from gene expression to network construction. BMC Genomics 8: 411, 2007.

5. Hempen, C. H., & Fischer, T. (2009). A Materia Medica for Chinese Medicine: Plants, Minerals, and Animal Products. (Pg. 436-437).

6. Thyagarajan, A., J. Jiang, A. Hopf, J. Adamec and D. Sliva. Inhibition of oxidative stress-induced invasiveness of cancer cells by Ganoderma lucidum is mediated through the suppression of interleukin-8 secretion. Int. J. Mol. Med. 18: 657–664, 2006.

7. Xie, J.T., C.Z. Wang, S. Wicks, J.J. Yin, J. Kong, J. Li, Y. C. Li and C.S. Yuan. Ganoderma lucidum extract inhibits proliferation of SW 480 human colorectal cancer cells. Exp. Oncol. 28: 25–29, 2006.

8. Paterson, R.R. Ganoderma — a therapeutic fungal biofactory. Phytochemistry. 67: 1985–2001, 2006.

9. Lin, Y.L., Y.C. Liang, S.S. Lee and B.L. Chiang. (2005). Polysaccharide purified from Ganoderma lucidum induced activation and maturation of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells by the NFkappaB and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. J. Leukoc. Biol. 78: 533–543.

Cannabis (Cannabis sativa/indica)

Cannabis Overview

Cannabis is well known for its psychoactive effects, causing temporary changes in visual and auditory perception.

The cannabis plant is also a rich source of medicinal compounds. Cannabinoids related to THC exert medicinal action through the endocannabinoid system — a critical component of homeostasis.

Many of these cannabinoids aren't psychoactive, and wont produce the 'high' associated with the plant in their isolated forms.

Compounds like CBD, have become especially popular as a supplement recently for its broad medicinal benefits.

There are plenty of uses for cannabis — however, product selection, strain choice, and cannabinoid profiles make a big difference in the effects produced by the plant. It's important to use the right type of cannabis for the job.

Jump to Section

What is Cannabis Used For?
Technical Details
Botanical Information
Phytochemistry
— CBC
— CBD
— CBG
— THC
— THCV
— Other Cannabinoids
— Terpenes
Clinical Applications of Cannabis
Cautions
References

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What is Cannabis Used For?

Using cannabis as medicine poses challenges due to the large variety of effects each cannabinoid possesses. Different cannabinoid and terpene ratios can produce different effect profiles.

The plant has many claimed benefits, and though a lot of them can be validated, it's not a miracle plant.

Cannabis is especially reliable for a few key symptoms:

• Lowering various forms of inflammation
• Improving microbiome diversity (through CB2 receptor activity)
• Reducing nervous excitability
• Reducing convulsions
• Improving sleep onset and maintenance
• Lowering pain

Using cannabis as medicine should be attempted with caution due to the degree of variability the plant produces in terms of effect profile. What this means is that some cannabis extracts will make symptoms like anxiety worse, while others can dramatically improve it.

Choosing the right strain or extract is of the utmost importance when using cannabis as medicine.

The effects of cannabis can be contradictory:

• It's both a stimulant and a sedative
• It increases appetite, and suppresses it
• It increases immune activity, and suppresses inflamamtion

These effects all contradict themselves in most cases. The reason this happens is because the cannabinoids work through a regulatory pathway (endocannabinoid system) rather than on a particular organ function.

It's similar to how adaptogens like ginseng, ashwagandha, or reishi produce often contradictory or bidirectional results.

+ Indications

• Anorexia
• Cancer
• Crohn's disease
• Dystonia
• Epilepsy
• General anxiety disorder
• Glaucoma
• Gout
• Insomnia
• Menstrual cramping
• Multiple Sclerosis
• Neuropathic pain
• Osteoarthritis
• Rheumatoid Arthritis
• Schizophrenia (Caution)
• Social anxiety disorder
• Substance abuse/addiction
• Ulcerative colitis
  

+ Contraindications

• Only use cannabis medicinally following the direction of a qualified medical practitioner.
• Caution with anxious or depression.
• May worsen symptoms of psychosis
• Avoid use alongside medications unless first discussing with your doctor.
  

+ Potential Side-Effects

• Apathy (long-term use)
• Bronchitis (smoking)
• Cough (smoking)
• Depression
• Dizziness
• Dry eyes
• Dry mouth
• Eye reddening
• Fatigue
• Hallucinations
• Headache
• Heart palpitations
• Hypertension/Hypotension
• Increased appetite
• Lightheadedness
• Menstrual changes
• Nausea/vomiting
• Numbness
• Paranoia
• Tachycardia

Herb Details: Cannabis

Weekly Dose

• (CBD content in mg)
  70–700 mg
• View Dosage Chart

Part Used

• Leaves, flowers, seeds

Family Name

• Cannabacea

Distribution

• Worldwide

Herbal Actions:

• Sedative/Stimulant
• Anti-emetic
• Anti-spasmodic
• Anti-convulsant
• Analgesic
• Antinflammatory
• Appetite Suppressant/Stimulant
• Adaptogen
• Anti-cancer
• Antioxidant

Common Names

• Cannabis
• Marijuana
• Hemp
• Mary Jane
• Herb

Pregnancy

• Avoid use while pregnant and nursing.

Duration of Use

• Long-term use acceptable. Recommended to take breaks periodically.

CYP450

• CYP2C9
• CYP3A4

Botanical Information

Cannabis plants are members of the Cannabacea family. This small family comprises only 11 different genuses, and about 170 species.

Some common members of the family are hops (Humulus spp.) and celtis (Celtis spp.). The celtis genus contains the largest collection of species by far, with over 100 different species. Cannabis and Humulus are the closest related genus' in the group by far.

There are three species of cannabis:

1. Cannabis sativa

Cannabis sativa is a tall, fibrous plant. It's high in cannabinoids, terpenes, and other phytochemicals — giving it many uses medicinally.

Cannabis sativa is the most commonly cultivated species. There are hundreds, if not thousands of different phenotypes of this species — the most important being hemp — which is a non-psychoactive, high fiber plant valued as both a health supplement and textile. It's also used for food (seeds), and to make biodeisel.

There are also Cannabis sativa strains high in the psychoactive component — THC — which make it popular as both medicine and recreational intoxicant.

2. Cannabis indica

Cannabis indica grows as s shorter, bushier plant. It's hgiher in THC, and there are few low-THC phenotypes available for this plant.

This species of cannabis is most often used recreationally.

3. Cannabis ruderalis

Cannabis ruderalis is a small, herbaceus plant more closely related to Cannabis sativa than Cannabis indica. It's low in cannabinoids, and terpenes, as well as fiber — limiting its value to humans.

This species has the unique ability to initiate flower production irrelevant to day length. Plant breeders have started mixing the plant with other species to gain these benefits. This makes cultivation easier in areas where day length is too short or too long for optimal cannabis cultivation.

Phytochemistry

There are 421 compounds in the cannabis plant [1], at least 66 of these are cannabinoids — some sources report as many as 112.

The top 6 cannabinoids in the plant (CBD, CBG, CNN, THC, THCV, and CBC), account for the vast majority of the cannabinoid profile.

The phenotype of the cannabis used is the primary determining factor for the cannabinoid profile of each plant.

Hemp plants for example, contain much higher levels of CBD, and lower levels of THC. Marijuana strains are the opposite, contianing high THC, and lower CBD.

Depending on the strain, this can vary dramatically — and you can find almost any combination of cannabinoid possible.

The Cannabinoids:

Cannabinoids are a class of phytochemical compounds resembling the structure of our naturally occurring ecosanoid endocannabinoids; anandamide, and 2-AG. There are roughly 66 of these compounds in the cannabis plant, and a few found in other species of plants as well — such as helichrysum and echinacea.

Although the cannabinoids are very similar, their binding activity varies a lot [14]. Some bind to CB1 receptors (located primarily in the central nervous system), others bind to CB2 receptors (found primarily in immune tissue). Some cannabinoids will even bind to both, or work by increasing the concentrations of naturally occurring endocannabinoids instead.

Due to the wide range of variability between each cannabinoid, it’s useful to go over them in greater detail individually.

1. CBC

Cannabichromene

CBC is the third most abundant cannabinoid in the cannabis plant.

It’s non-psychoactive.

CBC is far less studied than the two preceding cannabinoids CBD, and THC, though early research is starting to suggest it’s even better for treating conditions like anxiety than the famed CBD.

CBC content can be increased in the cannabis plant by inducing light-stress on the plant [5].

CBC Medicinal Actions

• Antidepressant

• Mild sedative

Receptors Affected

• Vanilloid receptor agonist (TRPV3 and TRPV4) [4]

2. CBD

Cannabidiol

In many cases, CBD is the most abundant cannabinoid. Only selectively bred cannabis strains will have higher THC concentrations than CBD.

CBD is famed for many reasons. It offers a wide range of medicinal benefits, and has been well-studied and validated over the past two decades.

CBD oils, e-liquids, and edibles have become highly popular in recent years as more of this research is being released and translated for the general public.

CBD Medicinal Actions

• Antinflammatory

• Mild appetite suppressant

• Lowers stress

• Adaptogenic

• Mild sedative

• Anti-emetic

Receptors Affected

• Adenosine (A2a) reuptake inhibitor [6]

• Vanilloid pain receptors (TRPV1, TRPV2, TRPV3) [7]

• 5HT1A receptor agonist (serotonin receptor) [6]

• FAAH (–) [6, 7]

• PPARγ nuclear receptor (+) [48]

• Mg2+‐ATPase (−) [11]

• Arylalkylamine N‐acetyltransferase (−) [44]

• Indoleamine‐2,3‐dioxygenase (−) [45]

• 15‐lipoxygenase (−) [46]

• Phospholipase A2 (+) [11]

• Glutathione peroxidase (+) [47]

• Glutathione reductase (+) [47]

• 5‐lipoxygenase (−) [46]

Metabolism

• CYP1A1 (−) [40]

• CYP1A2 & CYP1B1 (−) [40]

• CYP2B6 (−) [41]

• CYP2D6 (−) [42]

• CYP3A5 (−) [43]

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3. CBG

Cannabigerol

CBG is an early precursor for many of the other cannabinoids including THC.

Plants harvested early will be high in this compound.

Many users report that strains high in CBG are less likely to cause anxiety, and are good for people experiencing acute stress.

This is likely due to its role in blocking the serotonergic effects of THC through the 5-HT1A serotonin receptors [9].

CBG Medicinal Actions

• Anti-anxiety

• Adaptogenic

• Mild sedative

Receptors Affected

• A2-adrenoceptor antagonist [9]

• CB1 and CB2 receptors agonist [9]

• 5-HT1A receptors antagonist (serotonin receptor) [9]

• Vanilloid receptor agonist (TRPA1) [8]

• TRPM8 receptor antagonist [8]

4. CBN

Cannabinol

CBN is made from THC. As THC content breaks down with time, or heat, CBN levels increase overall.

Older harvested plants that have gone past their window of ripeness will be much higher in CBN.

It’s mostly non-psychoactive but may have some mild psychoactivity in some people.

Products or strains high in CBN will produce more of a heavy feeling and are best used for treating conditions like insomnia or anxiety.

This cannabinoid is potentially the most sedative of the group.

CBN Medicinal Actions

• Sedative

• Anti-anxiety

• Appetite stimulant

Receptors Affected

• CB1 receptor agonist [10].

Metabolism

• CYP2C9

5. THC

Tetrahydrocannabinol

THC is the main psychoactive compound in the cannabis plant.

There are two main types:

• Delta-8-THC — contained in very small amounts

• Delta-9-THC — the most abundant form of THC in the cannabis plant

THC activates both CB1 and CB2 endocannabinoid receptors, causing changes in neurotransmitters like dopamine, norepinephrine, and most importantly, serotonin. It’s this change in neurotransmitter levels that produce the bulk of the high experienced by this compound.

Aside from its psychoactive effects, THC has medicinal benefits of its own.

It’s mentally stimulating and has some potent antidepressant effects through its euphoric effects.

THC Medicinal Actions

• Appetite stimulant

• Sedative (low doses)

• Stimulant (high doses)

Receptors Affected

• CB1 and CB2 agonist [11]

• PPAR gamma receptor agonist [11, 15].

Metabolism

• CYP2C9

6. THCV

Tetrahydrocannabivarin

THCV is the fraternal twin of THC.

It’s virtually identical except for one slight chemical difference — THCV is missing two carbon atoms.

This makes the effects of THCV very similar to THC — but is much weaker in its effects.

One study reported THCV as being 20-25% as strong as THC in its psychoactive effects [12].

There are others affected by this, including CBCV, and CBDV, though they are in far less concentrations.

THCV Medicinal Actions

• Appetite suppressant

• Euphoric

• Antispasmodic

• Paranoic

Receptors Affected

• Vanilloid receptor agonist (TRPV3 and TRPV4) [13].

7. Other Cannabinoids

There are also a lot of cannabinoids that can be found in much lower concentrations.

These make up the bottom 5% of the cannabinoid profile.

Few of these cannabinoids have many studies on them aside from chemical mapping to identify their structure.

We may see more research on these cannabinoids in the near future.

Some Novel Cannabinoids Include:

• CBCV (cannabichromevarin)

• CBDV (cannabidivarin)

• CBE (cannabielsoin)

• CBGM (cannabigerol monomethyl ether)

• CBGV (cannabigerovarin)

• CBL (cannabicyclol)

• CBT (cannabicitran)

• CBV (cannabivarin)

A Note On Synthetic Cannabinoids

There are also synthetic cannabinoids. These are compounds that are similar in shape and function to cannabinoids produced in our bodies, or in the cannabis plant.

It’s recommended that you stay far away from the synthetic cannabinoids — not only do they lack many of the medicinal actions of cannabis, they have the potential to cause serious harm.

The street drug known as “spice” is a combination of various synthetic cannabinoids. They were designed as an attempt to circumvent the legal hurdles preventing the sale of cannabis products for recreational use — and have since become a major cause of addiction and abuse.

+ Side-Effects of Synthetic Cannabinoid Use

• Agitation and anxiety
• Blurred vision
• Chest pain
• Death
• Hallucinations
• Heart attack
• High blood pressure
• Kidney failure
• Nausea and vomiting
• Paranoia
• Psychosis
• Racing heart
• Seizures
• Shortness of breath

+ List of Synthetic Cannabinoids

• JWH-018
• JWH-073
• JWH-200
• AM-2201
• UR-144
• XLR-11
• AKB4
• Cannabicyclohexanol
• AB-CHMINACA
• AB-PINACA
• AB-FUBINACA

Cannabis Terpenes

Terpenes are a class of compounds characterized by their volatile nature, and hydrocarbon-based structure. These are contained in high amounts in the essential oil of plants.

Terpenes have a very low molecular weight, and will evaporate under low temperatures. This, combined with their characteristic aromas is what gives many plants their scent. Conifer trees, fruits, and many flowers (including cannabis) all owe their aroma to their terpene profile.

Each plant can contains hundreds of different terpenes — many of which will even overlap into unrelated plant species. Cannabis shares terpenes with pine trees, many different flowers, citrus fruits, and nutmeg, among others.

Terpenes add flavor as well as additional medicinal benefits. Terpenes often have antibacterial, antiviral, antinflammatory, and anxiolytic effects.

+ List of Cannabis Terpenes

• A-humulene
• a-Terpenine
• Alpha Bisabolol
• alpha-Terpineol
• Alpha/Beta Pinene
• Beta-Caryophyllene
• Bisabolol
• Borneol
• Camphene
• Caryophyllene oxide
• D-Linalool
• Eucalyptol (1, 8 cineole)
• Geraniol
• Guaiol
• Isopulegol
• Limonene
• Myrecene
• Nerolidol
• p-Cymene
• Phytol
• Pulegone
• Terpineol-4-ol
• Terpinolene
• Trans Ocimene
• Valencene
• ∆-3-carene

Pharmacokinetics/Pharmacodynamics

Cannabinoids work by mimicking the endocannabinoids anandamide and 2-AG.

Learn more about cannabinoid metabolism.

Clinical Applications of Cannabis

As an herb, cannabis is very useful. It works through a set of receptors most other plants don’t interact with — the endocannabinoid system.

The endocannabinoid system plays a major role in maintaining homeostasis. This gives cannabis an effect profile similar to adaptogens — but through different mechanisms.

Cannabis is similar to adaptogens in that it offers a bidirectional effect profile — which means it can both increase, and decrease tissue function according to its homeostatic baseline.

But cannabis isn’t quite an adaptogen because it can’t increase the bodies resistance to stress, and doesn’t appear to exert any action on the hypothalamus or adrenal glands directly.

Although cannabis has broad actions and therefore can provide benefit to a wide range of body systems — choosing the right product, strain, and phenotype for the job is critical.

An experienced herbalist or naturopath using cannabis will take into account the cannabinoid profile, terpene content, and anecdotal effects of each strain or CBD product being used.

Unlike other herbs, you have to be very particular about the type of cannabis being used for each condition.

What Constitutes “Medicinal” Cannabis?

There’s a big difference between using cannabis because “it’s healthy”, and using it as a therapeutic agent aimed at treating a specific disease process.

Although it can be used as both, daily supplementing cannabis or extracts like CBD don’t constitute medical cannabis.

However, you can use cannabis to address the symptoms, or underlying causes for some conditions.

Cautions:

Caution advised whenever using cannabis due to the potential for intoxicating side-effects. Without careful consideration of cannabinoid profile, some strains, or cannabis products may make symptoms for certain conditions worse — especially anxiety, psychosis, bipolar disorder, and insomnia.

Author

Justin Cooke, BHSc

The Sunlight Experiment

(Updated Jan 2019)

Recent Blog Posts:

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37. Iuvone, T., Esposito, G., De Filippis, D., Scuderi, C., & Steardo, L. (2009). Cannabidiol: a promising drug for neurodegenerative disorders?. CNS neuroscience & therapeutics, 15(1), 65-75.

38. Fernández‐Ruiz, J., Sagredo, O., Pazos, M. R., García, C., Pertwee, R., Mechoulam, R., & Martínez‐Orgado, J. (2013). Cannabidiol for neurodegenerative disorders: important new clinical applications for this phytocannabinoid?. British journal of clinical pharmacology, 75(2), 323-333.

39. Yamaori, S., Kushihara, M., Yamamoto, I., & Watanabe, K. (2010). Characterization of major phytocannabinoids, cannabidiol and cannabinol, as isoform-selective and potent inhibitors of human CYP1 enzymes. Biochemical pharmacology, 79(11), 1691-1698.

40. Yamaori, S., Maeda, C., Yamamoto, I., & Watanabe, K. (2011). Differential inhibition of human cytochrome P450 2A6 and 2B6 by major phytocannabinoids. Forensic Toxicology, 29(2), 117-124.

41. Yamaori, S., Okamoto, Y., Yamamoto, I., & Watanabe, K. (2011). Cannabidiol, a major phytocannabinoid, as a potent atypical inhibitor for cytochrome P450 2D6. Drug Metabolism and Disposition, dmd-111.

42. Yamaori, S., Ebisawa, J., Okushima, Y., Yamamoto, I., & Watanabe, K. (2011). Potent inhibition of human cytochrome P450 3A isoforms by cannabidiol: role of phenolic hydroxyl groups in the resorcinol moiety. Life sciences, 88(15-16), 730-736.

43. Yamaori, S., Ebisawa, J., Okushima, Y., Yamamoto, I., & Watanabe, K. (2011). Potent inhibition of human cytochrome P450 3A isoforms by cannabidiol: role of phenolic hydroxyl groups in the resorcinol moiety. Life sciences, 88(15-16), 730-736.

44. Koch, M., Dehghani, F., Habazettl, I., Schomerus, C., & Korf, H. W. (2006). Cannabinoids attenuate norepinephrine‐induced melatonin biosynthesis in the rat pineal gland by reducing arylalkylamine N‐acetyltransferase activity without involvement of cannabinoid receptors. Journal of neurochemistry, 98(1), 267-278.

45. Jenny, M., Santer, E., Pirich, E., Schennach, H., & Fuchs, D. (2009). Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol modulate mitogen-induced tryptophan degradation and neopterin formation in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in vitro. Journal of neuroimmunology, 207(1-2), 75-82.

46. Takeda, S., Usami, N., Yamamoto, I., & Watanabe, K. (2009). Cannabidiol-2', 6'-dimethyl ether, a cannabidiol derivative, is a highly potent and selective 15-lipoxygenase inhibitor. Drug Metabolism and Disposition.

47. Usami, N., Yamamoto, I., & Watanabe, K. (2008). Generation of reactive oxygen species during mouse hepatic microsomal metabolism of cannabidiol and cannabidiol hydroxy-quinone. Life sciences, 83(21-22), 717-724.

48. Pertwee, R. G., Howlett, A. C., Abood, M. E., Alexander, S. P. H., Di Marzo, V., Elphick, M. R., ... & Mechoulam, R. (2010). International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. LXXIX. Cannabinoid receptors and their ligands: beyond CB1 and CB2. Pharmacological reviews, 62(4), 588-631.

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)

What is Rosemary?

Plants have ingenious ways of spreading their seeds around the world.

One of the most successful is the rosemary shrub.

The desirable flavor, and useful medicinal qualities of rosemary have enticed humans to carry its seeds along with them from Europe as they spread to all corners of the earth.

The majority of rosemary around the world is used for its desirable culinary quality, however, there are plenty of good medicinal uses of the plant as well.

It's used primarily as a nervine, circulatory stimulant, and digestive.

It stimulates blood flow to the body and the brain and has the benefits of promoting mental clarity, and moving other herbs deeper into the peripheral blood system.

The volatile oils contained in its leaves stimulate digestion and soothe upset stomachs.

Here's everything I know about rosemary.

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How Is Rosemary Used?

Rosemary is popular in cooking. It's used medicinally to increase blood flow to the brain, reduce nerve pain, and improve digestion. The essential oil is used topically to promote blood flow and stimulate the hair follicles involved with premature balding.

Herb Details: Rosemary

Herbal Actions:

• Antidepressant
• Antimicrobial
• Antispasmodic
• Emmenagogue
• Nervine Stimulant
• Nootropic
• Rubefacient
• Carminative

Weekly Dose

• (1:2 Liquid Extract)
  15-30 mL
• View Dosage Chart

Part Used

• Leaf & twigs

Family Name

• Lamiaceae

Distribution

• Originally from Mediterranean, but has since spread all over the world.

Constituents of Interest

• Volatile oil (borneol, camphene, camphor, linalool)
• Apigenin
• Rosmarinic acid
• Carnosol & Carnosolic acid
• Rosmaricine

Common Names

• Rosemary
• Roosmaryn (Afrikaans)
• Rozmarinë (Albania)
• Ikleel al-Jabal (Arabic)
• Rozmarin (Bulgaria)
• Romarin (France/Germany)
• Mannenro (Japan)
• Alecrim (Portugal)
• Mi Die Xiang (China)

CYP450

• CYP1A2
• CYP3A4
• CYP2C9
• Also P-gp

Quality

• Warm, Acrid

Pregnancy

• Caution advised during pregnancy.

Taste

• Sweet, Acrid, Slightly Bitter

Duration of Use

• Long term use is acceptable.

Botanical Info:

Rosemary is a member of the mint family, which is one of the largest plant families. It contains roughly 236 different genera, and 6900-7200 different species.

The Rosmarinus genus contains 4 different species, the one most commonly used as medicine is Rosmarinus officinalis, though the other species also have some use in the regions in which it grows.

It's hardy to colder climates, but grows primarily in the Mediterranean. It's also highly drought-resistant, and can survive without water for very long periods of time.

Clinical Applications of Rosemary

Rosemary is most useful as a circulatory stimulant, nervine stimulant, carminative and digestive.

It's used to treat cognitive conditions involving poor blood flow like Alzheimer's disease, syncope, and headaches. it's also used as a nootropic and for increasing blood flow to the follicles of the hair to support hair growth. The essential oil is especially useful here for addressing symptoms of premature balding. It's also an excellent nervine used for conditions like neuralgia, sciatica, and depression when associated with debility or concussion.

Its digestive properties make it useful for addressing flatulence, indigestion, dyspepsia, and recovery from intestinal tract infection.

Cautions:

Avoid using therapeutic doses of rosemary while pregnant. This doesn’t include small doses of rosemary used in cooking.

Author:

Justin Cooke

The Sunlight Experiment

(Updated November 2018)

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Peony (Paeonia lactiflora)

What is Peony?

Peony is a common Chinese herbal medicine for treating hormone conditions in both men and women, as well as cardiovascular disease and muscle cramps. It's named after the mythological physician of the gods, Paeos, who was said to cure Pluto and other Greek gods injured during the Trojan war.

There are 3 main forms of peony in herbal medicine, tree peony, red peony, and white peony. These differentiations have nothing to do with the color of the flower, but the color of the roots after preparation. White peony is the most common, made from the roots of the plant without the bark attached. It's most commonly made from the species Paeonia lactiflora, but can be made from other species as well.

How Is Peony Used?

Peony is most commonly used for treating PMS symptoms, poly cystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), muscle cramps, and epilepsy. It is rarely used alone, as it is thought to have stronger effects in combination with other herbs like licorice or black cohosh.

Traditional Uses:

Peony is a common herb in the traditional Chinese herbal materia medica. it's considered to be specific for the liver, providing a soothing effect on liver energy and improves overall function. It's thought to nourish the blood, and is one of the great women’s tonics, especially in combination with licorice.

Compared to Angelica sinensis, Peony is used in much the same way, however, peony is used when the condition involved "heat", while Angelica sinensis is used when the condition involves "cold".

Herb Details: Peony

Herbal Actions:

• Anti-Androgenic
• Antinflammatory
• Antispasmodic
• Aromatase Inducer
• Dopaminergic
• Nootropic
• Ovarian Tonic
• Sedative (Mild)
• Uterine Tonic

Weekly Dose

• (1:2 Liquid Extract)
  25-75 mL
• View Dosage Chart

Part Used

• Roots

Family Name

• Ranunculaceae

Distribution

• Originated from Southern Europe, but has spread all over the world as a decorative garden flower.

Constituents of Interest

• Paeoniflorin
• Proanthocyanidins
• Flavonoids
• Terpenoids
• Tannins
• Complex Polysaccharides

Common Names

• Peony
• White Peony
• Red Peony
• Tree Peony
• Bai Shao Yao (China)

Quality

• Cold (Slightly)

Pregnancy

• Unknown

Taste

• Bitter, sour

Duration of Use

• Long term use is acceptable.

Botanical Info:

Peony is the only member of the Paeoniaceae family. In the past it was included in the Ranunculaceae family insteat along with over 2000 other species of plants. There are roughly 33 different species of peony worldwide.

Medicinally, there are 4 main species used;

• Paeonia suffruticosa (Tree peony)

• Paeonia lactiflora (Chinese peony)

• Paeonia veitchii (Chinese peony)

• Paeonia obovata (Chinese peony)

Clinical Applications Of Peony:

Peony is useful as a smooth muscle relaxant due to its ability to interfere with acetylcholine in the neuromuscular junctions.

It's also a fairly reliable aromatase inducer, useful for improving the production of estrogen from testosterone, and E1 and E2 to 2-hydroxy catechol estrogens.

Cautions:

Caution advised in combination with blood thinners.

Author:

Justin Cooke

The Sunlight Experiment

(November 2018)

Recent Blog Posts:

References:

1. Bensky, D., Gamble, A., & Kaptchuk, T. J. (2004). Chinese herbal medicine: materia medica (Vol. 3, p. 1004). Seattle: Eastland Press.

2. Kimura, M., Kimura, I., Takahashi, K., Muroi, M., Yoshizaki, M., Kanaoka, M., & Kitagawa, I. (1984). Blocking effects of blended paeoniflorin or its related compounds with glycyrrhizin on neuromuscular junctions in frog and mouse. The Japanese Journal of Pharmacology, 36(3), 275-282.

3. Bone, K. (2003). A Clinical Guide to Blending Liquid Herbs E-Book: Herbal Formulations for the Individual Patient. Elsevier Health Sciences.

4. Takeuchi, T., Nishii, O., Okamura, T., & Yaginuma, T. (1991). Effect of paeoniflorin, glycyrrhizin and glycyrrhetic acid on ovarian androgen production. The American journal of Chinese medicine, 19(01), 73-78.

5. Grant, P., & Ramasamy, S. (2012). An update on plant derived anti-androgens. International journal of endocrinology and metabolism, 10(2), 497.

Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium)

What is Manuka?

In New Zealand, where manuka trees grow, the Maori consider male tea tree plants "Kanuka" and the female plants "Manuka". The plant is regarded very highly in this culture as a medicinal species.

The most well-known form of manuka is in manuka honey. This is a honey made by bees feasting primarily on manuka bushes. The honey has an impressive antibacterial profile when made from these plants. This is also reflected in the herb itself, which has been shown to have potent antibacterial, anti-fungal, and antiviral activity.

Most of the medicinal benefits of the plant come from its essential oil content, which can vary a lot depending on the region the plant was grown in.

What is Manuka Used For?

Internally, manuka is used to treat gastrointestinal conditions like diarrhea, colic, inflammatory bowel syndrome, and dysentery. It's also used for urinary tract infection, anxiety, and cold/flu infections.

Manuka is used topically for its antibacterial, and vulnerary actions. It's used to treat slow healing skin and bone injuries, bacterial infections, candida, and eczema. It can be gargled for gingivitis, or for general oral hygiene.

Manuka honey is another common form of the plant. It's become so popular worldwide, it's been standardised by the phenol content. This is expressed as a unique manuka factor (UMF) value set by the Active Manuka Honey Association (AMHA). Anything over UMF 5 is considered strong enough to kill MRSA.

Herb Details: Manuka

Herbal Actions:

• Anti-inflammatory
• Antibacterial
• Antifungal
• Antispasmodic
• Anxiolytic
• Diaphoretic
• Diuretic
• Febrifuge
• Sedative
• Astringent

Weekly Dose

• (1:2 Liquid Extract)
  20-65 mL
• View Dosage Chart

Part Used

• Leaves, Flowers, Bark

Family Name

• Myrtaceae

Distribution

• New Zealand

Constituents of Interest

• Leptospermone
• Sesquiterpenes
• Tannins
• Citronellal

Common Names

• Manuka
• Tea Tree
• New Zealand Tea Tree

Quality

• Neutral-Warm

Pregnancy

• Unknown

Taste

• Spicy

Duration of Use

• Long term use is acceptable, but should be taken away from food.

Botanical Information

Manuka is a member of the Myrtaceae family of plants. This family contains as many as 133 different genera, and around 3800 different species, many of which are medicinally relevant.

Clinical Applications Of Manuka:

Manuka is useful both internally and topically. It's been shown to be an effective antibacterial agent for various forms of bacteria (including Staphylococcus). It's also an effective anti-fungal and antiviral (including HSV). The antibacterial effects were the most notable, with only some chemotypes of Manuka showing potent anti-fungal benefits.

Manuka can be used for nearly any form of bacterial infections both topically and internally, as well as wounds, ulcers, and gastrointestinal inflammation or infection. It's also useful for skin inflammation like eczema or psoriasis. The muscle relaxant effects make it useful for injuries, muscle tension, colic, and insomnia.

Cautions:

Manuka is widely considered safe and there are no common side effects of the herb.

+ Contraindications

Avoid long-term use alongside food. Tannins may impede mineral absorption.

Author:

Justin Cooke, BHSc

The Sunlight Experiment

(Updated November 2018)

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Mullein (Verbascum thapsus)

Mullein

Mullein is considered a staple in herbal medicine. It wasn't native to North America and was brought over by European settlers. Despite the new introduction of the herb, it was quickly adopted into use by the local native Americans and is even referred to commonly as Indian Tobacco.

Mullein is a very safe herb and offers benefits to a number of different systems in the body.

Out of all systems, mullein is most commonly used for respiratory and digestive system conditions. It's popular as an anti-catarrhal and for both soothing dry coughs, and eliminating catarrh with productive coughs. Although the entire plant can be used for either one, the leaves are generally preferred for dry coughs and the roots for productive coughs.

Mullein is as useful topically as it is internally for inflammation, muscle spasms, and infection.

What Is Mullein Used For?

Mullein is mainly used for treating respiratory infections and persistent coughs. Somewhat ironically, it's often smoked for its soothing effect on the lungs. It tends to increase moisture in the lungs, especially the leaves, making it especially useful for unproductive, dry coughs.

It's also used for gastrointestinal inflammation, parasitic infection, and muscle aches. It tends to have a humidifying effect throughout the body, providing a soothing effect, especially with dryness.

One of the most well-known uses for the herb is in the form of an infused oil for ear infections.

Herb Details: Mullein

Main Herbal Actions:

• Anthelmintic
• Anti-catarrhal
• Antispasmodic
• Astringent
• Expectorant
• Lymphatic
• Antibacterial

Weekly Dose

• (1:2 Liquid Extract)
  20-60 mL
• View Dosage Chart

Part Used

• Leaf, root, and flower

Family Name

• Scrophulariaceae

Distribution

• Originates from Europe around the Mediterranean, but has spread all around Europe & North America

Constituents of Interest

• Iridoid glycosides

Common Names

• Mullein
• Lady's Flannel
• Gordolobo
• Punchón
• Candelaria

Quality

• Root: Neutral, drying
  Leaf: Cool, moistening
  Flower: Cool

Pregnancy

• Unknown

Taste

• Salty

Duration of Use

• Long term use is acceptable.

Botanical Information

Mullein belongs to the figwort family (Scrophulariaceae) — a family consisting or roughly 65 different genera and 1800 species.

The Verbascum genus itself contains around 250 different species.

Verbascum is a popular garden plant for its ability to thrive in dry, nutrient-poor soils, and for their incredibly long flower duration.

The herb is biennial — the first season growing in a rosette leaf pattern, the second with a large velvety flower spike. Some mullein plants can grow up to three meters tall.

Clinical Applications Of Mullein:

Although there are many ways to use mullein, it excels with treating respiratory tract conditions. The leaves are excellent for treating dry coughs, while the root is much better for productive wet coughs.

Mullein is useful as a topical treatment for skin irritations, and as an oil for ear infections, especially the more drying flower of the plant.

Mullein also makes for an excellent lymphatic, both internally and externally.

Cautions:

Caution advised when working with the fresh leaf of this plant, as it can cause contact dermatitis in some individuals.

Author:

Justin Cooke, BHSc

The Sunlight Experiment

(Updated November 2018)

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Magnolia (Magnolia officinalis)

What is Magnolia?

Magnolia is one of the oldest flowering plants in existence, dating back as far as 95 million years ago. The first angiosperm is thought to have originated 130 million years ago. this is long before bees first appeared. To no surprise then, magnolia have evolved to be pollinated by beetles instead, which have been around for much longer.

Magnolia is a common herb in traditional Chinese medicine for treating Qi stagnation and removing obstructions.

It remains popular for reducing sinus infection and congestion, sinus headaches, asthma, coughs, and catarrh as well as anxiety and heightened cortisol levels.

+ Indications

• Abdominal pain
• Alzheimer's Disease
• Amoebic dysentery
• Anxiety
• Asthma
• Bloating
• Catarrh
• Coughs
• Diarrhea
• Gas
• Gastroenteritis
• Menstrual cramps
• Nausea/vomiting
• Poor appetite
• Poor digestion
• Rheumatoid arthritis
• Rhinitis
• Sinus infection
• Stress
• Typhoid
• Ulcers
  

+ Contraindications

Avoid use during convalescence.

How Is Magnolia Used?

Magnolia is used for its anxiolytic and digestive effects.It's often combined with Phellodendron for treating both acute and chronic stress.

Magnolia is also commonly used for upper respiratory tract infection, sinus congestion, and catarrh.

Herb Details: Magnolia

Herbal Actions:

• Antioxidant
• Antiallergic
• Antiasthmatic
• Anxiolytic
• Antibacterial
• Antifungal
• Antispasmodic
• Aphrodisiac
• Emmenagogue
• Expectorant

Weekly Dose

• (1:2 Liquid Extract)
  15-100 mL
• View Dosage Chart

Part Used

• Bark

Family Name

• Magnoliaceae

Distribution

• Eastern Asia, North America, Central America

Constituents of Interest

• Honokiol
• Magnolol

Common Names

• Magnolia
• Ch'Uan Pu (China)
• Chinese Magnolia
• Choon Pok
• Hou Pu

Quality

• Warm

Pregnancy

• Unknown

Taste

• Bitter

Duration of Use

• Long term use acceptable, but should be monitored by a professional.

Botanical Information

Magnolia officinalis is a medium sized tree, ranging from 5 to 15 m in height. It's deciduous, with purple brown bark.

Magnolia is a member of the Magnoliaceae family of plants. There are 2 subfamilies in this family, including Magnollioideae and Liriodendroideae. The latter of which only includes Liriodendron (Tulip trees). In The Magnoliaceae family there are approximately 219 species, distributed into 17 genera. The vast majority are included in the Magnolia genus, which has about 210 different species.

One interesting note is that it appears magnolia appeared before bees did. The flowers are instead evolved to be pollinated by beetles, due to the extremely tough carpels on the flower. There have also been fossils discovered with plants contained in the Magnoliaceae family as far back as 95 million years ago, making Magnolia one of the oldest remaining angiosperms.

Clinical Applications Of Magnolia:

Magnolia increases the activity of GABA receptors, as well as the muscarinic receptors. This is why Magnolia is useful for both its sedative effect, as well as some mild stimulating effects. While most anxiolytic herbs have a particular effect on the parasympathetic nervous system (through GABAergic effects), Magnolia also increases the activity of the sympathetic nervous system through the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in a similar way to GABA.

Magnolia is especially useful for eliminating nasal congestion, sinus infections, coughs, and catarrh. It's used to improve indigestion and dysentery, though it is not commonly used for bacterial or fungal infections alone.

Magnolia is also used for reducing symptoms of stress and anxiety. It can reduce cortisol levels in stressed individuals, especially in combination with Phellodendron. Its primary actions for this involves GABAergic activities, and have been shown to lower salivary cortisol levels in stressed individuals.

Magnolia should be avoided in those who are chronically fatigued, or who are suffering from convalescence. Traditional Chinese medicine suggests that magnolia should be avoided with any condition involving yin deficiency.

Author:

Justin Cooke, BHSc

The Sunlight Experiment

(Updated November 2018)

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Graviola (Annona muricata)

What is Graviola?

Graviola is a large tropical tree with a rich history of traditional use for conditions like cancer, parasitic infection, insomnia, and dysentery. Modern use remains very similar, mainly focusing on tension headaches and muscle aches, insomnia, diabetes, cancer, hypertension, and parasitic infection.

Although the entire plant has been used as medicine by various traditional medical systems, the most common form the plant is available in today is as a leaf extract, and raw leaves intended for tea.

Graviola is gaining in popularity outside worldwide as a general health supplement, blood sugar regulator, and anticancer agent. As a result, it's getting easier to find the herb as time goes on. It is likely this tea will become a staple in Western herbal medicine in the coming years.

Featured Graviola

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How Is Graviola Used?

Graviola is mainly used as an adjunctive treatment for cancer, especially leukemia and other haematological cancers, as well as prostate, colon, and breast cancers.

Graviola is also popular as an anti-diabetic herb, and can be used to reduce hypertension, especially in combination with diabetes or metabolic syndrome.

Graviola is a potent anti-parasitic, useful for a wide range of different parasitic species, including worms, protozoa, and bacterial parasites.

Traditional Uses of Graviola

+ South America

Graviola originated from South America and/or the Carribean. All parts of the plant were used as medicine for a wide range of conditions.

The most common use of the plant appears to involve cancer treatment and parasitic infection.

The darkest leaves on the plants were used primarily as a sedative or antispasmodic. They were used to treat insomnia, arthritic pains, colic, dysentery, muscle aches, headaches, and diabetes. The leaves were often placed inside a pillow or bedsheets to improve sleep.

In Brazil, the leaves were made into a tea for treating various liver conditions. The oil of the leaves and unripe fruits were used topically for treating neuralgia, and arthritis.

In Peru, the leaves were used to treat excess catarrh, and the bark and root were used for treating diabetes, insomnia, and muscle aches.

In Guyana, the leaves were used as a heart tonic.

+ Southeast Asia

In Southeast Asia, graviola was an important treatment for malaria. It was made into candies, ice cream, and syrups for treating malaria and other parasites.

Herb Details: Graviola

Herbal Actions:

• Anticancer
• Antinflammatory
• Antioxidant
• Antispasmodic
• Anticonvulsant
• Antidepressant
• Antidiabetic
• Antibacterial
• Antiarthritic
• Antilithic
• Antimalarial
• Bradycardic
• Digestive stimulant
• Febrifuge
• Hepatoprotective
• Hypotensive
• Sedative
• Vasodilator

Weekly Dose

• (1:2 Liquid Extract)
  40-80 mL
• View Dosage Chart

Part Used

• Leaves

Family Name

• Annonaceae

Distribution

• North & South America, The Caribbean, Indonesia, Western Africa, Pacific Islands

Constituents of Interest

• Acetogenins
• Alkaloids (reticulin, coreximine, coclarine and anomurine)
• Essential oils (β-caryophyllene, δ-cadinene, epi-α-cadinol and α-cadinol)
• Quercetin

Common Names

• Graviola
• Custard Apple Tree
• Soursop
• Annona
• Guanabana (South America)

Quality

• Cool*

Pregnancy

• Unknown

Taste

• Sour

Duration of Use

• Avoid long term use.

Botanical Information

Graviola is a large tree, growing to a height of 10m. It requires high humidity, warm weather, and high annual rainfall in order to thrive. It produces large, edible fruits with an acidic taste (hence the common name soursop).

There are over 130 different genera in the Annonaceae family, and around 2300 different species. The Annona genus itself has about 70 different species. Annona muricata is the most commonly grown worldwide.

Phytochemistry

There are over 100 annonaceous acetogenins in the plant, which are considered to be the primary active constituents of the plant. Structurally these chemicals are derivatives of long chain (C35 or C37) fatty acids. These compounds are cytotoxic against tumour cell lines, and molluscicidal.

Graviola is also rich in alkaloids, saponins, terpenoids, flavonoids, coumarins, lactones, anthraquinones, tannins, cardiac glycosides, phenols, and phytosterols.

+ Complete Phytochemical Makeup

Annonaceous Acetogenins

The leaves contain annomuricins A and B, gigantetrocin A, annonacin-10-one, muricatetrocins A and B, annonacin, goniothalamicin, muricatocins A and B, annonacin A, (2,4-trans)-isoannonacin, (2,4-cis)-isoannonacin, annomuricin C, muricatocin C, gigantetronenin, annomutacin, (2,4-trans)-10R-annonacin-A-one, (2,4-cis)-10R-annonacin-A-one, annopentocins A, B and C, cis- and trans-annomuricinD-ones, annomuricine, muricapentocin, muricoreacin and murihexocin C and annocatacin A and B.

Alkaloids

Graviola contains reticulin, coreximine, coclarine and anomurine.

Essential Oils

Graviola contains β-caryophyllene, δ-cadinene, epi-α-cadinol and α-cadinol.

Clinical Applications Of Graviola:

Graviola is useful for parasitic infection, including protozoan, and helminth parasites. It's used as a mild sedative and antispasmodic, and can be very useful for gastrointestinal inflammation and dysbiotic conditions.

Graviola is also a popular treatment for diabetes by slowing lipid per-oxidation, and restoring islet beta-cells in the pancreas.

It's commonly used as an adjunctive treatment of cancer, especially haematological cancers and colon cancer.

Cautions:

Graviola has been reported to increase symptoms of Parkinson's Disease.

Caution advised in combination with other hypoglycaemic drugs due to potential additive effect.

+ Contraindications

• May exacerbate Parkinson's Disease symptoms (Acetogenin content)
• Caution advised in combination with other hypoglycemic drugs due to potential additive effect.
  

Author:

Justin Cooke, BHSc

The Sunlight Experiment

(Updated November 2018)

Recent Blog Posts:

References:

1. Moghadamtousi, S. Z., Fadaeinasab, M., Nikzad, S., Mohan, G., Ali, H. M., & Kadir, H. A. (2015). Annona muricata (Annonaceae): a review of its traditional uses, isolated acetogenins and biological activities. International journal of molecular sciences, 16(7), 15625-15658.

2. De Sousa, O. V., Vieira, G. D. V., De Pinho, J. D. J. R., Yamamoto, C. H., & Alves, M. S. (2010). Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of the ethanol extract of Annona muricata L. leaves in animal models. International journal of molecular sciences, 11(5), 2067-2078.

3. Torres, M. P., Rachagani, S., Purohit, V., Pandey, P., Joshi, S., Moore, E. D., ... & Batra, S. K. (2012). Graviola: a novel promising natural-derived drug that inhibits tumorigenicity and metastasis of pancreatic cancer cells in vitro and in vivo through altering cell metabolism. Cancer letters, 323(1), 29-40.

4. Coria-Tellez, A. V., Montalvo-Gónzalez, E., Yahia, E. M., & Obledo-Vázquez, E. N. (2016). Annona muricata: A comprehensive review on its traditional medicinal uses, phytochemicals, pharmacological activities, mechanisms of action and toxicity. Arabian Journal of Chemistry.

5. Gavamukulya, Y., Abou-Elella, F., Wamunyokoli, F., & AEl-Shemy, H. (2014). Phytochemical screening, anti-oxidant activity and in vitro anticancer potential of ethanolic and water leaves extracts of Annona muricata (Graviola). Asian Pacific journal of tropical medicine, 7, S355-S363.

6. Arroyo, J., Martínez, J., Ronceros, G., Palomino, R., Villarreal, A., Bonilla, P., ... & Quino, M. (2009, September). Efecto hipoglicemiante coadyuvante del extracto etanólico de hojas de Annona muricata L (guanábana), en pacientes con diabetes tipo 2 bajo tratamiento de glibenclamida. In Anales de la Facultad de Medicina (Vol. 70, No. 3, pp. 163-167). UNMSM. Facultad de Medicina.

7. Adewole, S., & Ojewole, J. (2009). Protective effects of Annona muricata Linn.(Annonaceae) leaf aqueous extract on serum lipid profiles and oxidative stress in hepatocytes of streptozotocin-treated diabetic rats. African journal of traditional, complementary and alternative medicines, 6(1).

8. Adeyemi, D. O., Komolafe, O. A., Adewole, O. S., Obuotor, E. M., Abiodun, A. A., & Adenowo, T. K. (2010). Histomorphological and morphometric studies of the pancreatic islet cells of diabetic rats treated with extracts of Annona muricata. Folia morphologica, 69(2), 92-100.

9. Adewole, S. O., & Caxton-Martins, E. A. (2006). Morphological changes and hypoglycemic effects of Annona muricata linn.(annonaceae) leaf aqueous extract on pancreatic β-cells of streptozotocin-treated diabetic rats. African Journal of Biomedical Research, 9(3).

California Poppy (Eschscholzia californica)

California Poppy Summary

California poppy is a relative of the opium poppy that gives us morphine. This particular member contains a different set of alkaloids with similar, but milder effects.

California Poppy is the official state flower for California but grows throughout the Southern parts of the United States.

Its primary uses — both in modern herbal medicine and traditional herbal medicine — is for treating anxiety, chronic pain, and insomnia. It's one of the most potent herbal sedatives available.

How Is California Poppy Used?

California poppy is used for its sedative and analgesic effects. It contains a set of alkaloids similar to morphine, though not as strong. It can be used both internally for anxiety, insomnia, and chronic pain, as well as topically for skin irritations and ulcers.

Herb Details

Weekly Dose

• (1:2 Liquid Extract)
  20-40 mL
• View Dosage Chart

Part Used

• Aerial parts

Family Name

• Papaveraceae

Distribution

• Southern parts of The United States of America

Herbal Actions:

• Analgesic
• Antispasmodic
• Anxiolytic
• Nervine

Constituents of Interest

• Eschscholtzine
• Californidine
• Sanguinarine
• Chelerythrine

Common Names

• California Poppy
• Kaliforniese papawer (Afrikaans)
• Pavot de Californie (France)

CYP450

• CYP3A4
• CYP2C9
• CYP2C19
• CYP2D6
• CYP1A2

Pregnancy

• No adverse effects expected.

Taste

• Bitter

Duration of Use

• May be used long term.

Botanical Information

California poppy is a member of the Papaveraceae family. This family contains roughly 42 genera and about 775 different species. The Eschscholzia genus itself contains about 12 different species.

The species, Eschscholzia californica, is very diverse, as it has been extensively bred commercially and by hobbyists as an ornamental garden flower.

Clinical Applications Of California Poppy

California poppy extract enhances GABA binding and is an opioid receptor agonist. It's been shown to displace fluorazepam from the benzodiazepam receptor. This is likely the main mechanism of action for California Poppy's sedative, and analgesic effects.

Caution

• May possess additive interaction with benzodiazepines.

Author:

Justin Cooke, BHSc

The Sunlight Experiment

(Updated November 2018)

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Chickweed (Stellaria medica)

What is Chickweed?

Chickweed is a small herbaceous plant found growing throughout North America and Europe. It has naturalized on nearly every continent and thrives in colder climates.

Although there is not much modern research involving chickweed, it has a rich history in traditional medicine.

Chickweed was used internally for lung infections and irritations, and topically for skin conditions like eczema and psoriasis.

The herb was mainly used as a succas, or consumed whole in fresh form.

How Is Chickweed Used?

Chickweed is used internally for lung conditions, including asthma, chronic bronchitis, or asthma. Topically, it's made into creams and salves for skin irritations. This can include psoriasis, eczema, skin ulcers, or rashes. It's also consumed as a food in many Northern climates where it grows naturally.

Herb Details: Chickweed

Herbal Actions:

• Demulcent
• Refrigerant
• Emollient
• Antibacterial
• Antitussive
• Expectorant

Weekly Dose

• (1:2 Liquid Extract)
  20-40 mL
• View Dosage Chart

Part Used

• Aerial Parts

Family Name

• Caryophyllaceae

Distribution

• Found on every continent on earth except Antarctica

Constituents of Interest

• Carotenoids
• Linalool
• Caryophyllene
• Borneol

Common Names

• Chickweed
• Starweed
• Alsine Media
• Passerina
• Mouse Ear Star
• Satinflower
• Starwort
• Stellaria
• Winterweed

CYP450

• Unknown

Quality

• Cold

Pregnancy

• No adverse effects expected.

Taste

• Unknown

Duration of Use

• May be used long term.

Botanical Information

Chickweed is known for its creeping nature, and ability to grow in very cold weather. It's even been found growing underneath the snow in mountainous regions of North America.

Chickweed is a member of the Caryophyllaceae family, which contains as many as 2625 species distributed into 81 genera.

The Stellaria genera itself contains between 90 and 120 different species.

Clinical Applications Of Chickweed

There is little research on chickweed — however, it was shown to have high levels of carotenoids and a handful of antibacterial compounds like caryophyllene, menthol, and linalool.

Chickweed also contains saponins — which are thought to have a soothing effect on the skin. This is likely the mechanisms behind chickweeds popularity as an ointment for skin inflammation and infection.

For this application, chickweed is generally used as a fresh succas or made into salves, oils, and creams.

The traditional use for lung conditions is thought to be due to the saponin content, which is well known to have mucus membrane irritant effects, promoting the excretion of mucus.

+ Contraindications

• Skin irritation and allergies may occur from topical application.
  

Author:

Justin Cooke, BHSc

The Sunlight Experiment

(Updated November 2018)

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Gymnema (Gymnema sylvestre)

What is Gymnema?

Gymnema is known as "the sugar destroyer" because of its unique ability to inhibit our ability to taste sweet foods.

This quality is used to combat sugar cravings in diabetics to control blood sugar levels.

It's been used for thousands of years in India for treating conditions involving "sweet urine." This is a common symptom of diabetes as sugar diffuses into the urinary tract. Old methods of diagnosis involved tasting the urine to identify a sweet taste.

Gymnema offers a variety of unique benefits towards conditions like diabetes, including changes to the pancreatic beta-cells, responsible for releasing insulin into the blood.

Gymnema is also a diuretic, helping to clear glucose from the blood through urine (in combination with plenty of water of course).

Finally, gymnema leaves inhibit the sweet sensation on the taste buds, making food taste bland and dull, which can be used to reduce the cravings for sweet (high sugar) foods responsible for maintaining the pathophysiology of diabetes and metabolic syndromes.

What is Gymnema Used For?

Gymnema is mainly used to treat metabolic conditions like diabetes, PCOS, and metabolic syndrome. It's also used for dental carries, and poor digestion.

+ Mechanisms

• Inreases the number of insulin-secreting beta cells in the pancreas
• Decreases the perception of sweet taste on the taste buds
• Inhibits peripheral utilization of glucose by somatotrophin and corticotrophin.

Herb Details: Gymnema

Herbal Actions:

• Antidiabetic
• Hypocholesterolemic
• Suppresses Sweet Taste
• Diuretic
• Refridgerant
• Astringent

Weekly Dose

• (1:2 Liquid Extract)
  25-75 mL
• View Dosage Chart

Part Used

• Leaves

Family Name

• Apocynaceae

Distribution

• Southeast Asia

Constituents of Interest

• Gymnemic acids
• Gymnemasaponins
• Gurmarin
• Betaine

Common Names

• Gymnema
• The Sugar Destroyer
• Gurmar

CYP450

• CYP3A4
• CYP2C9
• CYP1A2
• CYP2D6

Quality

• Unknown

Pregnancy

• No adverse effects expected.

Taste

• Dull (Blocks sweet receptors on the tongue)

Duration of Use

• Suitable for long term use.

Botanical Information

Gymnema is a member of the Apocynaceae (dogbane) family of plants.

In the past, gymnema was included in the milkweed (Asclepiadaceae) family — but has since been changed to a subfamily category.

The Apocynaceae family now contains 5 subfamilies (Apocynoideae, Asclepiadoideae, Periplocoideae, Rauvolfioideae, and Secamonoideae).

It contains 5100 species and 366 genera. There are roughly 50 different species of Gymnema — many of which are used interchangeably.

Many plants in the Apocynaceae family are trees preferring tropical environments — except for a handful of species that prefer to grow in deserts.

Clinical Applications Of Gymnema:

Gymnema is mainly used for metabolic conditions including hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, metabolic syndrome, PCOS, hypertriglyceridemia, and both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Its diuretic and increases the number of pancreatic beta cells.

One of the more unique effects of gymnema is its ability to inhibit sweet flavor. By simply chewing on the leaves, our ability to perceive sweet flavors gradually fades away — helping to prevent excessive sugar intake in habituated individuals.

Cautions:

High saponins may cause gastrointestinal upset, caution advised with high doses.

Caution advised if taking hypoglyemic medication due to agonistic interaction.

+ Contraindications

• Caution advised with hypoglycemic drugs
  

Author:

Justin Cooke, BHSc

The Sunlight Experiment

(Updated November 2018)

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